An introduction to entomology : or, Elements of the natural history of insects

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at|http: //books .google .com/I

/

Y'^/,.,.

t>«)

INTRODUCTION

rrOMOLOGY:

rs

)F INSECTS:

h l^iytni iflai

isQ. F.L.S.

LONGMAN, REE8, OKME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

y

V

rRINTED BT RICHARD TAYLOR,
SHOK UkNEy LONDON.

/

« > « * k

CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.

Letter.
XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

XL.

XLI.

XLIL

XLIIL

XLIV.

XLV.

XL VI.

XLVIL

XLVJIL

XLIX.

Page.
Interna] Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects. Sensation 1 — 3S

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Respiration . . S4r— 79

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Ciradation, . . . 80 — 95

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued Digestion .... 96 — 120

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Secretion .... 121 — 145

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Reproduction. . 146 — 166

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects concluded. Motion 167 — 196

Diseases of Insects 197 — 232

Senses of Insects ^S—256

Orismology, or Explanation of Terms 257 — 354

System of Insects 355 — *18

History of Entomology 419—473

Geographical Distribution of Insects ;
their Stations and Haunts ; Seasons ;
Times of Action and Repose 474—514

\ O, A ^^ ^? r)

iv CONTENTS.

Letter. Page.

L. On Entomological Instruments ; and
the best Methods of collecting,
breeding, and preserving Insects. . 515 — 54^

^LL InveAtigation of Insects 547—560

Appendix 561—572

Authors quoted 573—589

Explanation of the Plates 590—602

Indexes 603—634

ERRATA.

Page. Line, Tjbxt.

58 12, for Semblis read ISialis.
78 antepenult, fir Case! read puttis.
97 21, put a commu tjfter longitudinaHy, and dde thai after

transversely.
107 2, o^er crop insert and.

289 _ 23, t^ier Menelaus insert Plate XIV. Fio. I. a.
590 3, for d. The Bronchiaa connected with the Trachea, read

d. The Nerves &c.

Page. Note.

10
20
37
44
97
149

176

Notes.

dele 1.

for creadb.
for ^ read A",
dele n'\

after Fio. add 3.

after 109 add Plats XXX. Fia. 12. a.
dele Plate XXX. Fic. 12. a.
for a read a.

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

ENTOMOLOGY.

LETTER XXXVII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF INSECTS.

SEN1SATION..

Having given you this fidl account of the external
parts of insects, and their most remarkable variations ;
I must next direct your attention to such discoveries as
have been made with regard to their Internal Anatomy
and Physiology t a subject still more fertile, if possible^
than the former in wonderful 'manifestations of the
POWER, WISDOM and GOODNESS of the Creator.

The vital system of these little creatures, in all its
great features, is perfectly analogous to that of the verr
tebrate animals. Sensation and perception are by the
means of nerves and a common sensorium / the respiration
of air is evident, being received and expelled by a par*

VOL. IV. B

£ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ticular apparatus ; nutrition is effected through a stomach
and intestines ; the analogue of the blood prepared by
these organs pervades every part of the body, and from
it are secreted various peculiar substances; generation
takes place, and an intercourse between the sexes, by
means of appropriate organs ; and lastly, motion is the
result of the action otmnscles* Some of these functions
are, hbwever, exercised in a mode apparently so dissimi-
lar from what obtains in the higher animals, that upon a
first view we are inclined to pronounce them the effect of
processes altogether peculiar. Thus, though insects re-
spire a/r, they do not receive it by the mouthy but through
little orifices in the sides of the body ; and instead of
lungSf they are fiimished with a system of air vessels,
ramified ad infinitiwij and penetrating to every part and
organ of their fraone ; and though they are nourished by a
fluid prepared from the food received into the stomachy
this fluid, unlike the blood of vertebrate animals, is white^
and the mode in which it is distributed to the different
parts of the system, except in the case of the true Arach-
nidoj in which a circulation in the ordinary way has been
detected, is altogether obscure.

In order that you may more clearly understand the
variations that occur in insects, and in what respects
they differ amongst themselves, and from the higher ani-
mals, in the vital functions and their organs, I shall con-
sider them as to their organs of sensation^ respiratiouy qir-
culationy nutrition^ generation^ secretion^ and muscular
mctionm

Organs of Sensation. — The nervous system of animals
is <Mie of the most wonderful and mysterious works of

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 3

the Creator. Its pulpy substance is the visible medium
by which the governing principle* transmits its com-
mands to the various organs of the body, and they move
instantaneously — ^yet this appears to be but the conduct-
or of some higher principle, which can be more imme-
diately acted upon by the mind and by the wilL This
principle, however, whatever it be, whether we call it the
nervous ^id, or the nervous jHnoer^ has not been de-
tected, and is known only by its effects. The system of
which we are Speaking may therefore be deemed the
foundation and root of the animal, the centre from which
emanate all its powers and functions*

Comparative anatomists have considered the nervous
isystem of animals as formed upon three primary types,
which may be called the molecular^ the ganglionic^ and
cerebrO'^nal^. The Jirsl is where invisible nervous
molecules are dispersed in a gelatinous body, the exist-
ence of which has only been ascertained by the nervous
irritability of such bodies, their fine sense of touch, their
perceiving the movements of the waters in which they
reside, and from their perfect sense of the degrees of
light and heat^. Of this description are the infusory
animals, the Polypi^ the star-fish and sea-urchins. The
nervous molecules in these are conjectured to constitute
so many ganglions, or centers of sensation and vitality^*
The second^ the ganglionic, is where the nervous system

* To 'Hyf/MOf/»oy.

*> See Hooper's Medical DictUmary, under Nervous FluH and
Mr. Sandwith's useful Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, 83.

« K. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 305-,

' Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 36^. Compare MacLeay Bor. Entomolog.
215—. ' « N met. d^Hist. Nat. ubi supr.

B 2

4f INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consists of a series of ganglions connected by nervous
threads or a medullary chord, placed, except the first
ganglion, below the intestines, from which proceed nerves
to the various parts of the body*. This prevails in the
Classes /ns^^a, Crustacea, Arachnida, Mollusca, Annelida^
&c. In the third, the cerebro-spinal, the nervous tree
may be siud to be double, or to consist of ttw systems—
the first taking its origin in a brain formed of two hemi-
spheres contained in the cavity of the head, from which
posteriorly proceeds a spinal marrow, included in a dor-
sal vertebral column. These send forth numerous nerves
to the organs' of the senses and the muscles of the limbs.
The second consists of two principal ventral chords, which
by their ganglions, hut without any direct communica-
tion^ anastomose with the spinal nerves and some of
those of the brain, and run one on each side from the
base of the skull to the extremity of the sacrum. This
system consists of an assemblage of nervous filaments
bearing numerous ganglions, from which nervous threads
are distributed to the organs of nutrition and reproduc-
tion*. Its chords are called the great sympathetic, the
intercostal, or trisplanchnic nerves*^. While the first of
these two systems is the messenger of the will, by means
of the organs of the senses connects us with the external
world, and is subject to have its agency interrupted by
sleep or disease^ ; the latter is altogether independent of

■ N. Diet. (THiit. Nat. xvi. 306. ^

»> Jifid. 307. The great sympathetic nerves in Jishes are said to
have no ganglions. Cuv. idn supr. 297.

c They arc called trisplanchnic hecause they render to the three
cavities of the viscera : — ^viz. the thoracic, the abdominal and the
pelvic, y. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 524. 527-

^ In Hemiplegia, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. &

the will and of the intellect, is confined to the internal orga^
nic life, its agency continues uninterrupted during sleep,
and is subject to no paralysis. While the former is the
seat of the intellectual powers, the latter has no relation
to them, but is the focus firom whence instincts exclu-
sively emanate : fi*om it proceed spontaneous impulses
and sympathies, and those passions and affections that
excite the agent to acts in which the will and the judge-
ment have no concern*.

. It is probable, though the above appear to exhibit
the primary types of nervous systems, that -others ex-
ist 0f an intermediate nature, with which future investi-'
gators may render us better acquainted^ : but as our bu-
siness is solely with that upon which insects in this re-
spect have been modelled, without expatiatii]^ further in
this interesting field, I shall therefore now confine myself
to them*

We have before seen*^ that the nervous system -of in-
sects belongs to the ganglionic type : but it requires a
iQore fuU description, and this is the place for it. It ori-
ginates in a small brain placed in the head, and consist*
ing almost universally of two lobes, sometimes extremely
distinct It is placed over or upon the oesophagus or gul*-
let, ahd frcw its posterior part proceed^ a double ner-
vous chord, which embracing that organ as a collar dips
below the intestines, and proceeds towards the anus, form-
ing knots or ganglions at intervals, in many cases cor-

• N. Diet. d^HuL Nat. xvi. 307.

^ Thus in the MoUuiC4S there must be a great difference in this
respect, since in some of these the brain or cerebral ganglion has
^)«en cut off with the head, and another reproduced. Ibid. xvL 306.
Comp. V, 391, * Vol. III. p. :29.

Q INTERNAL ANATOMT OF INSECTS.

responding in number with the segments of the body,
and sending forth nerves in pairs, the ramifications of
which are distributed to every part of the frame. This
may be considered more particularly with respect to its
substance and colour ; its tunics ; and parts.

I. Substance and Colour. — The nervous apparatus of
insects is stated by those who have examined it mostnar-
rowly, though consisting of a cortical and medullary part,
the latter more delicate and transparent than the former,
to be less tender and less easy to separate than the hu-
man brain K It has a degree of tenacity, and does not
break without considerable tension; in general, it i?
clammy and flabby, and under a microscope a number
of minute grains are discoverable in it, and when left to
dry upon glass, it appears to contain a good deal of oil,
which does not dry with the rest**. That of thp gan-
glions differs from the substance of the rest of the spinal
chord, in being filled with very fine aerial vessels, which
are not discoverable in the latter*^. With regard to co-
lour^ Lyonnet states that the chords of the spinal mar-
row in the larva of the great goat-moth are of a blueish
gray, and have some transparence^ ; M alpighi and Swam-
merdam observed that the cortical part of the ganglions of
that of the silk-worm and the hive-bee had a reddish hue,

" Lyonnet Anatcm. 100. ^ Ibid. 101.

^ Ibid, 1 00. In man and the vertebrate animals, the medullary pulp
is every where homogeneous ; under the microscope it appears to con-
sist of a number of minute conglomerated globules. M« Vauquelin has
analysed it, and found it to contain, of water 80 parts, of albumen
in a state of demicoagulation 7*0; of phosphorus 1*50; of osraazone
11^; of a white and transparent oily matter 4*53; of a similar red
do. 0*75; of a little sulphur and some salts 5*15. N,Dict. d*Hi9i,
Nat. xxii. 531-^. ^ Anat. 99«

« I

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 7

while the medullary part was white^ ; Cu^ier relates that
the brain and the third gan^on in Htffwgymna di^ar^
with us a scarce moth, differed in colour irom all the
resl^ being quite white, while the others were more <»r
less tinted, and examined under a lens appeared vari&*
gated by reddish sinuous markings, resembling blood-
vessels as they axe seen in injected glands^

IL Tunics. — Thecoats that inclose thevarious brandies
of the nervous systeiQ in insects seem analogous to those
of vertebrate animals. The first thing that strikes the
eye, when these parts in a recent subject are submitted
to a microscope, is a tissue of very delicate vessels, which
ramify beyond the reach of the assisted sight; these are
merely air-vessels or bronchus derived originally from the
trpcheic of the animal : but besides these is an exterior
and ay interior tunic ; the first corresponding with the
Asra mater of anatomists ; and the other, which is the
jtnost delicate and incloses the cortical and medullary
parts, with ihtpia mater ^.

JII. Parts. — The nervous system of insects consists
of the brain s the spinal marrow and its ganglions / and
the nerves.

L Brain^. Linne denied the (existence of a brain in
insects, and most modern physiologists seem to be of the
same opinion. A part however, analogous to this impor-
tant organ — at least in its situation, and in its emission of
nerves to the principal organs of the senses^ in which re-
spect it certainly differs very materially from the upper

"" Malpigh. de Bombifc. 30. Swamm. JBibl. Nat. i. 224. a.

^ Anat. Comp. ii. •348.

f Lyonnet Anat, 100. t. iv. /. 6.. Sandwith Introd. 59—.

^ Plate XXI. Fig. 1. 7. 8. a.

8' INTERNA'L ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cervical ganglion, which Dn Virey regards as its ana-
logue *-^is certainly to be found in them ; and as Messrs.
Cuvier and Lamarck distinguish this part by tibe name
c/l'brainy we may continue to call it by that name with-
out impropriety. The brain of insects, then, is distin-
gidshed from the succeeding ganglions of the spinal chord
by its sittiation in the head, the middle of the internal
cavity of which it occupies, and by being the only gan-
glion' cSove the oesophagus. It is usually small^ though
in some cases larger than they are**. It consists of two
lobes, more or less distinct and generally of a spherical
form.' In Oryctes nasicomts and Pieris Brassiae the
lobes are separated both before and behind*^ ; wliile in the
iBTy&KsfJDytiscus marginalise but not in the imago, in which
tfiere ate two large hemispheres -separated by a furrowj
flie brdn is undivided^. Cuvier meiitions the larva of
a Tenthredolj. in whichthispartisformed of j^r nearly
equal' spherical bulbs * : in the Scorpion (to judge by the
figiu'e of Treviranus*^) the two lobes represent an" equi-
lateral triai^le, the exterior angle of which terminates
ito Several lesser spherical bulbs ^ in Acrida viridissimay
Nepa cinerea^ Clnbiona atrox^ and the common' Louse, the
lobes are pe^-shaped^* ' ' " ■

' ii. 754^ spinal marram and its ganglionsK From the
posterior part of the brain of insects, but in Carahus and
DytiscUs L. from its sides below V issue two chords whieh

> N. Diet. d'Hist, Nat. xxii. 6^. ^ Ibid. v. 591.

c Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 318. Swamm. BiM. Kai. t. xxix./ 7. Hc-
rold Afhmetterl. t ilf. I—IO. a. «» Cuv. Ibid. 322. 337.

e Ibid. 324. f Arachnid, t. If. ll m.m,

' Cuv. ubi supr. 343.346. Treviranus Arachnid, i. v. / 45. a.
Plate XXI. Fig. 8. a. ^ Ibid. Fig. 1. bJf. * Cuv. iSi supr. 337.

IKTSBNAL ANATOMY OF INJSECTS. 9

diY^ging embrace the (Bsophagusi and dipping below it
and the intestines, — a situation they maintain to the end
of their course, — and in their further progress unitilig at
intervals and dilating into several knots or gsmglions,
compose their spinal marrow* This part is so named^
from a supposed analogy to the spinal marrow of verte-
brate animals, which however admits o£ some degree of
dcmbt; yet, since", it mixe& the iuncticms of that organ
with those of the great sympathetic nerves, thedenomi-
nation is not wholly improper, and^may be retmned.
Though this ehoid is usually double when it first pi*o«
ceeds from the bltdn, and surioundi^ the cesophdgus like
acdllar, yet in some insects k may^be. cidled a sit^le
chord. This is the case with that of the common louse,
in which Swammerdam could perceiv^^ no opening for
the transmission of th^ part just named* ; if he was not
i^staken in this, the brain, a:» well^as the rest of the spi«
nal marrow in that animd, would be below the intestines ;
from the figures of Trevii^anus^ it i^ould seem that die
spiders, at least Clubkma (drox^ are similarly circum-
stanced^ ; in the cheese-maggot, which^ turns to a two-
Winged fly {Tyraphaga putris K.)* the chord is also sin-
gle, but it has a small orifice through' which the gullet
passes^. At the union of the ch<»rd9 in other cases be-
low that organ, a knot or ganglion is usually formed, and
an alternate succession of intemodes and ganglions com-
monly follows to the end. The intemodes ako may ge-
nerally be stated to consist of a dmtble chord, though
in many cases the two chords unite and become one, qr

* Plate XXI. Fig. 8. Swamm. BUd. Nat. i. 36. b.

* AruchnkL t v./. 45. « Swamm. M supr. I. xUii./. J.

10 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INfiSCTS.

are distinguished mly by a Icoig^tudinal furrow, and evtfti
where they are really distinct and separable^ in the body
of the insect they lie close together*. In Oryctes nasu-
carnis and Acrida viridissima &c. all the internodes con-*
sist of a double chord ^ ; but in many other insects nume-
rous variations in this respect occur. — Thus in the stag--
beetle the last intemode is single^ ; in the caterpillar of
the cabbage butterfly {Pieri$ Brassica) the Jive Jlrst are
double, and the six last single^ ; in that of the great goat^
moth {Cossus ligniperda) the three first only are double,
but the others teiminate in a fork^ ; in the cock-roaches
(Blatta) the Jour first, in Hydraphilm jnceus the three
first, and in Elophilus tenax the two first only are double^
the rest being all single^. A singular variation takes
place in Hypogymna disparj aU the internodes are single,
except the second^ the chords of which at first are sepa*
rate, and afterwards united^ ; and, to name no more^ in
Cbdnona atrox there is only one internode^ which is sin-
gle, with a longitudinal furrow N In some, as in the louse,
the grub of Chyctes nasicomis, and the cheese-maggot,
there are no internodes, the spinal marrow being formed
of knots separated only by slight or deep constrictions '•
I must next say something of the ganglionsK Lyon-
net has observed that, in the caterpillar of the great goat-

* Swamm. M ntpr, 11^. a.
^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii, 337. 343—.

^ Ibid. 336. ^ Herold SchmeUerl. t, iL/. 1.

' Lyonnet Anat. 98.

^ Cxiy,'ubiiwpr.Z42. Gaede iV. ^c/. ^corf. CVr^. XL. ii. 3^. Cuv.
JIM. 351. « Ibid. 348.

*> Treviranus Arachnid, t. v./. 45.
» Plate XXL Fig. 7. 8. Swamm. BiM. Nat. t. xKiL/. 7.
» Plate XXL Fig. L 7. 8. c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF lNaECT& 11

moth, these in ^ne respect diffi^ remarkably from the
chords that connect them ; in the latter the air-vessels or
bronchise only cover the outside of the tmiic, while in the
former they enter the substance of the ganglion, which
is quite filled with their delicateand numberless branches^.
Every ganglion may be regarded in some degree as a cenr
tre of vitality or little brain ^, and ia many cases, as wdl
as the brain, they are formed of two lobes ^. I shall now
consider them more particularly as to their station^ nunP"
heTj and shape.

!• With regard to the first head, their station^ they
are most commonly divided between the trunk and ab-
domen ; but in some cases, as in Hydrophilus piceus and
Acrida virtdissima, ihejirst ganglion is in the head^ ; in
others, as in the louse, the water-scorpion, and the grub
of the rhinoceros-beetle (Oryctes nasicomis\ they are
confined to the trunks their fimctions in the abdomen be-
ing supplied by numerous radiating nerves^; in others
again, as in the scorpion, they are all abdominal. The
ganglions vary also in their situation with respect to each
other. Thus in some, as in the larva of the Chamaekon-
fly {Stratyomis Chanueleon\ they are so near as to appear
like a string of beads ^ ; in that of the ant-lion {Myrme^
lean) the two ganglions of the trunk are separated by an
interval bom those of the abdomen, which are so conti-

• Lyoimet AmU. 100. ^ N. Diet. d*Hut. Nat. xxii. 5^^—.

^ Lyonnet M supr, U ix./. 1 — 4.

<» Cuv. Anai, Comp. ii. 339. 343. * Platb XXI. Fio. 7-

f Swamm. ubi supr. U xl. /. 5. Cuvier (ii. 33^.) accuses Swam-
merdam of representing the spinal marrow in this grub as producing
nerves only on one side; whereas he expressly states (iL 50. b.) that a
considerable number spring on each side from the eleven ganglions^
but that to avoid confbsion he had omitted some.

lit IHTEaVAL ANATOMY Of IN8XCT&

guous as to resemble the rattle of the rattle-snake *• In
odiers the intemodes are longer, and the ganglions occur
at nearly equal intervals, as in the larva of the Ephe-
. mera>^ ; but in the majority they, are unequal in length :
thus in the scorpion the three first gai3glions are the most
distant^ ; in the hive-bee the third and fourth^ ; and in
the* spider the last ^

2« The ganglions also in difierent species, and often
in ike same, insect in its different states, vary in their
number. Thus in the grub of the rhinoQeros-beetle.lhi^
whole spmal marrpw appears Uke a single gangUo^ di-
vided. only by transverse furrows ^ ; in the water scoipion
there are two^ ; in the louse there are three^ ; in the rhi<«
nooeros-beede there are jftmr^; fioe in the stag-beetle^ ;
fffoen in the hive-bee and some Lepidoptera ^ ; eight in the
grub of the stag^-beetle"^; nine in the great Hydrophilm^ ;
ten in Dytiscus^ ; eleven in the grub of the great Hydro^
pkilus^ ; twelve in the grub of Dytiscus and the caterpil-
lars of Lepidoptera^ ; thirteen in the larva of j^khna^ ;
and tmenty-four in Scolopendra morsitans*. You must
observe that, generally speaking, the number of ganglions

* Cttv. vM supr. 325. » Swamm. BiU. Nat, t. xv./. 6.
c Trcviran. Arachnid, tl.f. 13, 1—4.

** Bwamm. ubi supr, t xxii./. 7.

* Tireviran. uM tupr. t. v./. 45. ' Plate XXI. Fig. 7.
« Cuv. Afua. Comp. ii. 346. * Plate XXI. Fig. 8.

Cuv. vH supr. 337. ^ Ihid. 335- . » Ibid. 348.

«JWrf.320— . » /Aid 340— . «^/«if.338— .

* * P Gaede vbi supr.

fl Cuv. M tupr. 323—. 327—. Mr. Bauer (PAtf. Trans. 1824. t. ii,
/. 1.) has figured only seven^ excluding the brain, in that* of the silk-
wormy and Malpighi {De Bombyc, t. vi. /• 2.) ten, — S^mtnerdam
{BQd. Nat. t xxviii./. 3.) however has twelve.

' Ibid. 326. • Ibid. 352.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 1]3

isl less in the imago than in the larva. With regard^ to
the distribution of these knots to the different primary
parts; of the body, the following table irill exhibit it^ as
far as 1 am acquainted with it, at one ^dSew, I omit thofee
in which the ganglions are only in one of these parts.

Head. Trubk. AbdSanain.

Acrida viridissima 1 ••••••••• S ••^'••••&« 6*

Hydrophilus piceus 1 •••• 6 2

Clubiona atrox ••• 0 • 2 •••• 1

Qryllotalpa vulgaris .... 0 2 *••••••••>?'*

Myrmeleon Larva ••«••• 0 2 ••;*k.*.« 8^

Elophilm tenax 0 S ••••••••• 2^

Apis domestica *•• 0 •••• 3 •*•••••••• 4

Ephemera Larva • 0 3 ••• 7

^^hna Larva .•••• 6 ••••••;•• 6 •••• 7

3. I am next to say a few words upon the sAflJ^^'of the
ganglions. Most commonly it approaches to a spherical
figure, but in many instances, as I said before, theyj as
well as the brain, consist of two lobes : they are, however,
seldom all precisely of the same shape. Iii the Dytisci^
and Carabif the last is marked with a transverse furrow,
which seems to indicate the reunion of two^ ; in the stag-
beetle, the first ganglion is oval or elliptical, the second
hexagonal ; the third and fourth shaped like a crescent,
and the last like an olive '^ ; in the caterpillar of the great
goat-moth the first is oblong and constricted in the mid-
dle, and the seven last are rhomboidal^; in the great
Hydrophilus the second, and in the silk-worm all the gan-

• Cuv. vjfn supr. 343—. <» IHd. 345. « Ibid. 9^5—.

^ Ibid. 351. • Ibid. 839. ' Ibid. 335—.

' Lyonnet Anat. 190.

14 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

glionst aire quadrangular*; in Hypogymna dispar the
third is heart-shaped^ ; the great ganglion which forms
the spmal marrow of the cheese-maggot is pear-shaped ^ ;
that of the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle is fusiform^ ;
and in the scorpion all the ganglions are lenticular ^
But the most remarkable in this respect are those of a
spider {dubiona airox) i in this insect the brain sits upon
a iHlobed ganglicm of the ordinary form, which is imme-
diately followed without any intemode by another bi-
lobM one, terminating on each side in four pear-shaped
processes or fingers^ whidi give it a very singular ap-
pearance^*

ilL The nerves^ of insects, as of other animals, are white
filaments runnmg from the brain and spinal marrow to
every part of the body which they are destined to ani-
mate; and their numerous ramifications, when delineated,
form no unpleasing picture \ In the caterpillar of Cos-^
sus ligniperda the accurate Lyonnet coxmXj&A forty-five
pairs of them,' and t(X30 single ones, making in all ninety-
two nerves; whereas in the human body anatomists
count only seventy-eight^. From the brain issue several
pairs, which go to the eyes^ antennce^ palpi, and other
parts of the mouth ; sometimes those that render to the
mandibles issue from the first ganglion, as in the larva
o{ Dytiscus marginalis, the stag-beetle, &c.^; those bodi

■ Cuv. Anat Cmnp, ii 340. Malpigh. de Bombyc, L vi./. 2.

«» Cuv. Ibid. 348.' « Swamm. JBiM. Nat. t. xlviii./. 7.

^ Cuv. IM. 319. « N. met. d*HUt. Nat. xxx. 420.

f Treviran. Arachnid, t. v./. 45. m.

» Plate XXI. Fig. 1. ?. 8. d.

«» Lyonnet tdn supr. t x.f. 5. 6. * Ihid.l92.

^ Cuv. nbi supr. 323. 335.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 15

of Tuandibles and palpi in the great Hydrephtlus^ ; and
in Blatta some which act also apon the antennce^.

The optic are usually the most conspicuous and re-
markable of the nerves. In some insects with large eyes,
afr many Neuropteroy Hymenoptera^ and DipterOy their
size is considerable ; in the hive-bee th^ present the ap>
pearance of a pair of kidney-shaped lobes, larger than
the brain ^ i in the dragon-flies, whose brain consists of
two very minute lobes, these nerves dilate into two large
plates of a similar shape, which line all the iniieF-4sm^e
erf the eyes ^ ; in the stag-beetle they are pear-shaped, and
terminate in a bulb, from which issue an infinity of mi-
nute nerves^ ; it is probable that this takes pla^e in all
cases, and that a separate nerve renders to every separate
lens in a compound eye^ ; the optic nerve in DytiscusKoA
Carabus is pyramidal, with the base of the pyramid at the
eye and the summit at the brain ^; in Ehphilus tenax
it is very large, cylindrical, and of a diameter equal to
the length of the last^mentioned part, upon the side of
which it is supported; it terminates in a very laige bulb
corresponding to the eye^ ; in Scolopendra morsitans the
optic nerves divide into four branches long before they
arrive at the eyes, and in this insect the nerves which
render to the fuitennse are so thick as to appear portions
of the brain, which they equal in diameter ^ Swammer-
dam discovered in the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle and
in the caterpillar of the silk-worm, a pair of nerves which

• Cuv, Anat. Comp, n. 339. ^ IM. 342.

* Swamm. Bibl, Nat, i, laaLf, 6. m.m.

^ Cuv. vbi supr, 350. ' IM. 335.

' Vol. III. p. 497. Lyonnet AtuU. 581.

« Cuv, uhi supr. 337. ** If^id. 351. ' Ihid. 362.

16 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

be regarded as analogous to the recurrent nerves in the
human subject, and therefore he distinguishes them by
the $am& name * : they issue from the lower surface, of the
brain, or that which rests on thecesojAagusj and at first
go towards the mputhy but afterwards turn back, and
uniting form a smaU ganglion; this produces a single
nerve, which passing below the brain follows the eesofdia-
gpis to the stomach, where it, swells into another gan^-
gUon, from which issue some small nerves that lender to
the stomach, and one more considerable which accom-
panies the intestinal canal, producing at intervals lateral
filaments whidx lose themselves m the. tunics of that tube ^.
Lyonnet aflerwards discovered these nerv^ in the cater*
{Hilar of the goat-moth % $nd Cuvier in oth^r insects^.

The other nerves which issue, from the brain eachibit
no remarkable features. Those whidi originnte in the
spinal marrow are mostly derived from the ganglions^ and
are sometimes mterwoven with the muscles, as the woof
with the warp in a piece of dpth^ ; those from the
three or four first commonly rendering to the muscles of
the leg&f wings, and other parts of the-^n^^, and those
from the remainder to the abdomen, Afler their origin
diey oflen divide and subdivide, and terminate in ntiroe-^
rous ramifications that connect every part of the body
with the sensorium commune, A pair of nerves is the
most usual number that proceeds from each i^de of a
ganglion^ ; but this i^ by no means constant, since in

^ Cuvier {vbi supr, 319.) seems not to have been aware that Swam-
merdam was the tet discoverer of these nerves^ since he attribntes
their name to Lyonnet.

b Bi&l. Nat. i. 138* b. t. xxviii./. 2. a, b, c,f. 3. g.

c miiupr. 57S. ^ Ulfi supr. S20. 33&, &c.

* Cuv. M tupr. 349. ' Lyonnet Anat. t. ix. x.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS; 17

the louse, the hive-bee^ and several other insects, only a
5f ftgfZenerve thus proeeeds ^ ; and in the larva ofEphemeraSy
while two pairs issue from the six Jirst ganglions^ oiily a
single one is emitted by thejivelaist^. In the spinal mar-
row of the rhinoceros<l>eetle, both larva and imago, the
nerves consist of simple filaments which diverge like rays
in all (fitections ^ : the same drcumstance distinguishes the
dieese-maggot, only some of the nerves appear to branch
at tlie end^ : in the louse, the last ganglion isends forth pos-*
teriorly three purs of nerves which render to the abdo-
men ^ Sometimes, though rarely, nerves originate in
the ifttemodes of the spinal marrow. Cuvier indeed has
asserted that in invertebrate animals aU the n^es spring
from a»e ganglions, and never immediately from the spf
nal marrow; but Swammerdam, in describing those of
the silk-worm, mentions and figures four pairs as pro,
ceeding from the four anterior intemodes, excluding the
first ^ I and at the same time he gives it as his opinion^
that all the nerves in insects really originate firom the
marrow itself, and not fi'om the ganglions, which he as-
serts are of a different substance, and are inclosed in the

• Plate XXL Fig. 8. Swamm. BibL Nat. t, xxii./ 6.

»» Ibid, t. xv./. 6. "^ Plate XXI. Fig. 7.

<* Swamm. ubi supr. t. xliii./. 7* ^> ^*

« Plate XXI. Fig. 8.

f In Mr. Bauer's figure (Philos, Trans. 1824. t ii./. 1.) no less than
eighteen pairs of nerves are represented as issuing fi'om the inter-
nodes; but it should seem as if in the specimefi from which his figiu'e
was taken, several ofthe ganglions, perhaps from some injury received
in the diasection, had become obliterated, while their nerves remain-
ed : yet still, even making allowance for these, many pairs will appear
to take thdr origin from the spinal chord.

VOL. IV. C .

IS INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

marrow for the sake of giving it greater firmness*. In
this opinion, however, he seems singular^. Those re-
jnarkable nerves described by Lyonnet under the name
of spinal bridle {bride epiniere) also take their origin, not
from the gangUons, but from a bifurcation of the spinal
marrow. Of these, in the caterpillar of the goat^moth
there are ten, the first issuing from the bifurcation of
the internode between the fourth and fifth ganglions, and
the remainder from the succeeding ones. After approach-
ing the succeeding ganglion, these nerves form a pair of
branches that diverge nearly at right angles from the
1>ridle, and producing several lesser branches, lose them-,
selves in the sides of the animal^. Besides the nerves
above-mentioned, two generally issue from the poste-
rior part of the last gangUon, diverging in opposite and
oblique directions : some of these render to the parts of
generation; and in the silk-worm, and probably other
species, the innermost pair is perforated for the passage
of the Vdsa deferential.

After duly considering this general outline of the ner-
vous system of insects, the question will continually oc-
cur to you,"— is then what you have called the brain the
sensorium commune of these animals, in the same manner
as it is in those with warm blood ? To this query a ne-
gative must be returned. In the latter, the brain is the
common centre to which, by means of the nerves and

• Comp. Cuv. AndL Comp. ii. 102—123.; with Swainin. Expl. of
Plates xxxii. t xxviii./. 3. k,

•» Malpighi seems, however, to agree with him. De Bombi/c, t. vi.
/.I. ^ Lyoimetvbi supr. 201. /. ix./. li 2. n. 1, 2. &Ci

** Swamm. M gupr, 1. 139. a. t. xxviii./. 3. s,s.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 19

spinal marrow, all the sensations of the animal are con-
veyed, and in which all its perceptions terminate. The
nerves and spinal marrow are merely the roads by which
the sensations travel; and if their communication with
the brain, by any means be cut off at the neck, the whole
trunk of the animal becomes paralytic, evidently proving
that the organ by which it feels is the brain. This, how'^
ever, is so far from being the case in insects, that in them,
if the head be cut o£^ the remainder of the body will con-
tinue to give proofs of life and sensation longer than the
head : both portions will live after the separation, some-
times for a considerable period; but the largest will sur-
vive the longest, and will move^ walkj and occasionally
even ^/^, at first almost as actively without the head, as
when united to it. Lyonnet informs us, that he has seen
motion in the body of a wasp three days after it had been
separated from the head; and that a caterpillar even
waited some days after that operation; and when touched,
the headless animal made the same movements as when
intire*. Dr. Shaw has observed — ^an observation con-
firmed in Unzer's Kkine Schreifterty — that if Scolopendra
eUctrica {Geophilm Leach) be cut in two, the halves will
live and appear vigorous even for 2i fortnight afterwards ;
and what is more remarkable, that the tail part always sur-
vives the head two or three days^. The sensorium com^
mun^ of insects, therefore, does not, as in the warm-blooded
animals, reside in the brain alone, but in the spinal mar-
row also. It was on this account probably that Linn^

* In Lesser Insecto4heol, ii. 84. note *,

•» Linn, Trans, ii. 8. Aristotle bad observed this vitality of insects,
and that that of the myriapods is greatest. Hist, Animal, /. Iv. c, 7.
De Mespiratione, c, 3. Reptiles have also this faculty. N. Diet*
iPHist. Nat. }^xix. 161.

C2

20 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

denied the existence of a brain in insects, regarding it
merely as the first ganglion of the spine.

Cuvier and other modern physiologists, from the gan-
glionic structure of this organ, are of opinion that it is
not the analogue of the cerebrch-spinal system of verte-
brate animals, but rather of their gr^^a/ sympathetic nerves.
Indeed, considering solely the extetmal structure of the
nervous system of insects, a great resemblance strikes us
between it and. these nerves ; for besides its general gan-
glionic structure, there is also in them an upper ganglion
in the neck, seemingly corresponding with, what we have
named the brain of insects, from which the nervous chord
dips to the lower part of the neck, where it forms a se*
cond ganglion, which appears to correspond with what
we have considered as their second ganglion^. We may
observe, however, that at least in one respect there is
even bxl external lesemblance between the brain of in-
sects and that of vertebrate animals :-*-it most commonly
consists^ as has been stated, like, them, of two lobes, often
very distinct ; a circumstance which not unfrequeiitly di-
stinguishes the other gahgHons^, and is not borrowed
from the ganglions of thegreat sympatheiics. With re-
spect to the internal structure of the ganglions and spinal
marrow of insects, we know little to build any theory
upon, except that the internal substance of the fi>rmer is
filled with air-vessels ; at least so Lyonnet, as has been
already observed, found in the Cossusj while only the
tunics of the.latter ape covered by them, — -a circumstance
which I shall again have occasion to advert to^ Taking

* Cuv. Anat Comp. ii. 283 — . These are named ** the upper and
lower cervical ganglions."

*» Lyonnet Anat. t. ix. x. Plate XXI. Fig. 1. a. c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 21

the above resemblance to the brain of vertebrates into
consideration, there appears ground for thinking that
the nervous system of insects, like some of their arti-
culations *5 is of a mixed kind, combining in it both the ce-
rebro-spinal and the ganglionic systems ; and this will
appear further if we consid^ iX&Junctions,

That learned and acute physiologist Dr. Virey, assum-
ing as an hypothesis, that the structure of the system in
question is simply ganglionic, and merely analogous to
the sympathetic system of vertebrate animals, has built
a theory upon the assumption, which appears evidently
contradicted by facts. Because, as he conceives afler
Cuvier, insects are not gifted with a real brain and spinal
marrow, he would make it a necessary consequence that
they have no degree of intellect^ no memory, judgement
or free will ; but are guided in every respect by instinct
ahd i^>ontaneous impulses,-^that they are incapable of
instruction, and can superadd no acquired habits to those
which are instinctive and inbred^. This consequence
would certainly necessarily follow, was their nervous
system perfectiy analogous to the sympathetic of warm-
blooded animals. But when we come to take into conside-
ration ikefunctimis that in insects this system confessedly
discharges, we are led to doubt very strongly the correct-
ness of the assumption. Now in these animals tiie system
in question not only renders to the nutritive and repro-
ductive organs, which is the principal function of the great
sympadietic nerves in the vertebrates ; but by the com-
mon organs maintains a connexion witii the external

» Vol. III. p. 664. 671.

»» N. Diet, d'Hist. Nat. ii. 47—. v. 692. xvi. 308—.

52 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSBCTS.

world, and acquires ideas of things without, which in
them is a function of the cerebral system : from the same
centre also issue those powers which at the bidding qC
the will put the limbs in action, which also belongs to
the cerebral system. That insects have memory, and
consequently a real brain, has been before largely proved,
as also that they have that degi'ee of intellect and judge-
ment which enables them to profit by the notices fur-
nished by their senses*. What can be the use of eyes,-—
of the senses of hearing, smelling, feeling &c. if they are
not instructed by them what to choose and what to avoid?
And if they ar<? thus instructed — they must have sufficient
intellect to apprehend it, and a portion of free will to en-
able them to act according to it. With regard to the
assertion that they are incapable of instruction, or of ac-
quiring new habits; few or no experiments have been tried
with the express purpose of ascertaining this point : but
some well authenticated facts are related, from which it
seems to result that insects may be taught some things,
and acquire habits not instinctive. They could scarcely
be brought from their wild state, and domesticated, as
bees have been so universally, and both ants and wasps
occasionally**, without some departure from the habits of
their wild state ; and the fact of the corsair-bees, that ac-
quire predatory habits before described ^, shows this more
evidently : but one of the most remarkable stories to our
purpose upon record, is that of M. Pelisson, who, when
he was confined in the Bastile, tamed a spider, and taught
it to come for food at the sound of an instrument. A

• Vol. II. p. 525—. 613—.

*» Huber Fotirmis, 260—. Reaum. vi. 172 — .

*= Vol. II. p. 207.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 23

manu&cturer also in Paris, fed 800 spiders in an apart-
ment, which became so tame that whenever he entered
it, which he usually did bringing a dish filled with flies
but not always, they immediately came down to him to
receive their food*.

All these circumstances having their due consideration
and weight, it seems, I think, most probable, that as
insects have their communication with the external world
by means of certain organs in connexion with their ner-
vous system, and appear to have some degree of intellect,
memory, and free will, all of which in the higher animals
are functions of a cerebral system, and at the same tim^
in other respects manifest those which are peculiar to
the sympathetic system, — ^it is most probable, I say, as was
above hinted, that in their system both are united.

I nuist bespeak your attention to a circumstance con-
nected with the subject of this letter, which merits parti-
cular consideration: I mean the gradual change that
takes place in the nervous system when insects undergo
their metamorphoses ; so that, except in the Orthoptera^
Hemipteray and Newx^tera Orders, in which no change
is itndergone, the number of ganglions of the spinal chord
is less in the imago than in the larva« There seems an
exception indeed to this rule in the case of the rhinocerbs-
beetle {Oryctes nastcorftis), in the larva of which there is
only one ganglion, while in the imago there ore Jour ^^
But as this one ganglion occupies the wh^le spinal mar-
row, it is resdly of greater extent than the four of the
imago; so that even in this case there is a concentration

» K. Diet d^HuU NaL ii. 279—
»» Cuv. Anat, Comp, ii. 319. 337,

24 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of the cerebral pulp. In some cases, as in Dytiscus mar-
ginaltSj and Hydrophilus piceus^y the imago has only one
ganglion less than the larva, but more generally it loses
Jimr oxjhe. Dr. Herold has traced the gradual changes
that take place in the spinal marrow of the common cab-
bage-butterfly {Pierts Brassi€a:\ from the time that it has
attained its full size to its assumption of the imago. Of
these I shall now give you some account.

In the full-grown caterpillar, besides the brain there
are eleven ganglions, the chords of the four first inter-
nodes being double, arid the rest single: from each gan-
glion proceed two pairs of nerves, one from each side.
In diis the lobes of the brain form an angle with each
other ^ In two days the double chords mutually recede,
so as to diminish the interval between the ganglions, and
the single ones have becoitie curved : thus the length of
the spinal marrow is shortened about a fonrfh^ and the
fourth and fifth ganglions have made an approach to each
other ^. On the eighth day, when the insect has assumed
the pupa but remains still in the skin of the caterpillar^
the flexure of the internodes is much increased ; the first
gangUon is now united to the brain, ^and the fourth and
fifth have joined each other, though they are still distinct ;
th^ spindi marrow has now lost considerably more than
a third of its length^. On the fourteenth day, the in-
ternodes, except the double ones, have become nearly
straight a^ain ; the fourth and fifth ganglions have coa-
lesced so as to form one, and the sixth and seventh have
each lost their pairs of nerves ^. Shordy after this, these

* Cuv. Anat. Cmnp. u. 322, 323^; 338, 339—.

»» Plate XXX. Fig. 1. ^ Ibid. Fig. 2.

*> Ibid. Fig. 3. . « Herold Schmett. L ii./. 6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 25

last gan^UoDs have nearly disappeared^ and the chords
of the three first intemodes have again approached each
other^. The next change ^Jiibited is the absorption of
tiie first ganglion by the brain, the union of the chords
of the first intemode, which is now straight, the approxi-
mation of the second and third ganglions, and the en<»
largemiKit of the (Hie formed by the miion of the fourth
and fifth, at the expense perhaps of the sixth and sevaitb,.
which have liow entirely disappeared, and in their place
is a very long intemode* These united ganglions retain
j the pairs of nerres they had when separate^. Just be-
I fi>re the assms^tion of the imago^ the direction of the
I lobes of the brain becomes horizontal, the second and
third ganglions unite^ and the intemode between the
tlurd and fourdi is shortened ^. Lastly, when the animal
is become a butterfiy, the second and third ganglions
have coalesced, and are joined to that formed by the union
of the fourth and fifth ; a short isthmus or rather ccmstric^
tion, .with, an orifice, being their only separation : eadbi
of these united gaoiglions send forth laterally fi>ur pairs
of nerves^. In his figure. Dr. Herold has not repre-
sented the orifice for the passage of the gullet, but doubt-
less one eidsts, which for an animal that imbibes only
fluid food is piobaUy very minute. In Hypogyfmna d&-
for^ we learn fium Cuvier, this orifice Is of that desorip-^
tion, and of a triangular shaped

It can admit of no reasonaUe doubt that one cf the
principal intentions of these changes is to accommo-
date the nervous system to the altered functions of the

' Herold SchmeU. t, ii./. 7- •* Plate XXX. Fig. 4,

« Ibid, Fig. 5. ' Ibid. Fig. 6.

* Antd, Comp, Ii. 348.

VOL. IV.

S$ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

animal in its new stage of existence, in which th^ an-
tennae, eyes, and other organs of the senses, as well as
Ae limbs and muscles moving them, and the sexual or-
gans, being very different Irbm those of the larva, and if
not whdlly new, yet expanded from minute germs to their
itiU size, may well demand corresponding changes in the
stiticture of the n«*vous system by whichfthey are acted

upon.

But are these changes also concerned, as Dr. Virey
Conjectures, in producing that remarkable alteration
which usually takes place between the instincts of the
larva and imago? In order to answer this question, it
will be requisite first to xjuote the ingenious illustration
with which this able physiologist elucidates his ideas on
this pointl " The more readily," he observes, ." to com-
prehend the action of instinct, let us compare the insect
to one of those hand-organs in which a revolving cylin-
der presents different tunes noted at its surface, and
pressing the keys of the pipes of the organ, gives birth to
all the tones of a song : if the tune is to be changed, the
eylinder must be pulled out or pushed in one or more
notches, to present other notes: to the. keys. In the same
manner let us suppose that nature has impressed or en-
graved certain determinations or notes of action, fixed in
a determinate series in the nervous system and the gan-
glions of the caterpillar^ by which alone she lives, she
will act according to a certain sequence of operations ;
and, so to speak, she will sing the air engraven within h^:.
When she undergoes her metamorphosis into a butterfly,
her nervous system being, if I may so express myseli^
pulled out a notch, like the cylinder, will present the
notes of another tune, another series of instinctive ope-

INTERNAL ANATOMSC OF INSGSCTS. 27

rations ; and the animal will even find itself as perfectly
instructed suid as capable of employing its new organs, as
it was to use the old ones. The relations will be the
8atne; it will always be the play of the instrument^." .

This illustration is doubtless at the.first glance very
striking and plausible : but a closer examination will^ I
think, show, that, as in so many other, instances in meta*
physical reasoning, when fanciful analogies are substi*
tuted for a rigid adherence to stubborn facts, it is satis*
&ctory only on a superficial vieir, and will not stand the
test of investigation ; and as this is a question intimately
connected with what I have advanced on the subject of
instinct in a former letter, I must be permitted to go
somewhat into detail in considering iu

To prove his position. Dr. Virey ought at least to be
able to show that, whenever a change takes place in the
instincts of insects in their difierent states of larva and
imago, a corresponding change takes place in the exter-
nal structure of the nervous chord. But what are the
&cts? In three whole orders, viz. Orthoptera^ Hemi-^
ptera^ arid Neuraptera, as mentioned above^, the struc-
ture of the nervous chord is not changed ; -and yet we
know that many tribes of these <»rders acquire instincts
in their imago state altogether difierent fi'om those which
directed them in their state of larvae. A perfect Locust^
for instance, acquires the new instincts of using its wings ;
of undertaking those distant migrations of which so many
remarkable instances were laid before you in a former
letter^; and, if a female, of depositing its eggs in an

■ 3r; IHct. (tmst. Kat, xvi. 313. Comp. i. 420.
*• See above, p. 23. ' Vol. I. 4th Ed. 220—.

28 IHl^RNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

appropriate situation* But if such striking changes, in
the instinct of these tribes can be efieoted without any
perc^tihle alteration in the structure of the ner¥ous
chord, it is contrary to the received rules of {^osophi-
cal induction to refer to this alteration the changes in the
instincts of other tribes where it is found* Is it not far
more probable that this alteration has in fact no con-
nexion with the changes of instinct, but is solely con-
cerned with those remarkable changes in the organs of
sense aad motion, which occur in the krva and imago
states of the orders in which it is observed ? In a com-
mon caterpillar, the form of the body, the legs, the eyes,
and other organs of the s^ses, all strikingly differ from
those of the imago; whereas, with the excepti<m of the
acquisition. of new wings, a perfect locust di&rs little
£rom its larva: so that we may reasonably expect a
corresponding change, sach as we find it, in the structure
<xf the nervous chord of the Jepidopterous insect, not
called for in that of the neuropteiDus species, in wlnidi
-accordin^y it does not take place.

This reasonir^, in oppoaition to Dr. Virej^s theory,
that the changes of instinct depend on the altered struc-
tmre of the nervous system, becomes greatly strengthened
when we advert to the higher classes of animals, which
surely in any investigatix»i of the nature of instinct ought
tq be dosdy kept in view; for the faculty, though often
less perfectin them than in insects, is still of the same
kmd^ and may consequently be expected to follow the
same general laws* In a young swallow, for example,
all its instincts are not developed at once any more than
in an insect. The instinct which leads it to migrate
does not appear for some months after its birth, and that

INTfiRNAt ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 29

flf bmlding a nest still later. But we have not the
filighteist ground for believing that these new instincts are
preceded by any change in the structure of the great
sympathetic nerve, or of any other portion of the nervous
system : and the same may be said as to the sexual in-
stincts developed in quadrupeds some years subsequent
to their birth. If, then, these remarkable changes in the
instinct of the higher dasses of animals can take place
iid€|)endently of any visible change in the nerve^, what
sttbstasitial reason can be assigned why they may not
also in the class of insects?

On the whole, I think you will agree with me, that
there is nothing in Dr. Virey's hj^othesis which should
lead me to alter the opinion I have already so strongly
expressed in a former letter^, as to the insufficiency of
the mechanical theories of instinct hitherto promulgated,
adequately to explain all the phenomena; and unless
they do this they are evidently of small value. Such
theories as I have there adverted to may often seem to
be supported by a few insulated facts, but with others, far
more numerous, they are utterly at variance; and, to
'Omk many other inisHances, I am strongly inclined to
•doubt the possibility of satisfactorily explaining the t^-
riety of instincts exereised by a bee^, or the esftraordi"
nary devdl^ment of new ones in particular circum-
stances only^, on any merely mechanical groulids.

And after all, even suppose it could be demonstratively
shown that every kisthict is as clearly dependent <m se-
condai^ causes, as I have formeriy admitted that jsome
doubdess seem to be, yet what would this teach us as
te the essential nidxire of instinct? We have advanced

• Vol. ir. 4th Ed. p. 467. * Ibid. p. 499. ^ Ibid. p. 509.

so INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

indeed a step; but stfll, as I have before observed in i^
ferring to the theories of Brown and Tucker, we have
only placed the world upon the tortoise, and instinct, as
to its essence^ which is what we want to detect, is as my-
sterious as ever: just as, though we can clearly prove that
the mind is acted upon by the senses, yet this throws no
light upon the essential nature of the mind, which we are
forced to admit is inscrutable, as if to teach us humility,
and prevent our vainly fancying, that thou^ allowed to
discover some of the arcana of nature, we shall ever be
able to penetrate into her inmost sanctuaries.

That Dr. Virey should regard instinct in insects as
purely mechanical was the natural consequence of his
denying them any portion of intellect ; but his opinion
cannot I think be consistently assented to^ if it be the
fact, as I have just shown*, that they are not wholly de-
void of the inteUectual principle. Whatever is merely
mechanical, must, under similar circumstances, always act
precisely in the same way. An automaton once con-
structed, whilst its machinery remains in order, will in-
variably perform the same actions ; and Des Cartes, when
he had constructed his celebrated female automaton,
imagined that he had irrefragably proved his principle,
that brutes are mere machines. But if^ instead of losing
himself in the wilds of metaphysical speculation, he had
soberly attended to facts, he would have seen that the
instinct of animals can be modified and counteracted by
their intellect, and consequently cannot be regarded as
simply mechanical. Though the instinctive impulse; pf an

empty stomach polverfuUy impel a dog to gratify his ap-
petite, yet, if he be well tutored, the fear of correction

* See above, p. 21.

1NTEBNAL. ANATOMY, OF INS£CtS, 51

will make him abstain from the most tempting dainties:
aad in like manner a bee will quit the nectary of a flower,
however, amply replenished with sweets, if alarmed by
any^interroptioja. The ants on which Buonaparte amused
himself with experiments at St Helena, though they
storined his sugar-bason when defended by a fosse of
water, controlled their instinct and desisted when it was
surrounded with vinegar^: and in 4he. remarkable in*
stance communicated to Dr. Leach by Sir Joseph Banks,
the instinct of a crippled spider so completely' changed,
that from a sedentary web-weaver it became a hunter^.
There is evidendy, therefore, no analogy between ac-
tions strictly mechanical and instincts, which, though
they may often seemto be excited by mechanical causes,
are liable to be restrained or modified by the connexion
of the instinctive and inteUectual faculties^; and while
we are ignorant how this connexion takes place, it is ob-
viously impossible to reason logically on the subject.

In thus denying that any existing meckanical theory of
instinct is satisfactory, I by no means intend to assert that
instinct is purely intellectuals I have already given you
ray opinion^, that it is not the effect of any immediate
agency of the Deity ; nor am I prepared to assent to the
doctrine of a writer, who has in some respects written
ably on the subject in question, who says, that ^^ the
IHvine Energy does in reality act not immediately^ but
mediatehjy or through the medium of moral and intelleo
tuaL influences upon the nature or consciousness of the
creature, in the production of the various, and in many
instances truly wonderful, actions which they perform V

^ Antommarchi'd Last Days of Napoleon,

^ Linn, Trans, xi. 393. * Vol. IT. 4th Ed. p. 515.

■* Ibid. p. 469. • Zoological Journal^ n®. i. 5,

SS INTERHAL ANATOMY OF IMSXCTfi.

The same objectiOB ^plies to diis as to so many otfa^
metaphysical theories, that it is not adequately supported
hy facts t and all theories not bo supported are injuiious
to science in [ooportion as tfaeir plautibiljty is greater, by
leading the student to relax in that observation of nature
and attentive study of the instincts of animal^ on whidi
alone sound hypothesu on this subject can be ulti-
mately founded.

I shall conclude these remarks on the nature of in-
stinct with a fev observations as to the circnmstances in
which ioiiects may be supposed to be guided hy this &-
culty, and those in which intellect seems to direct them.
The bee, when it takes its flight to a field where flowers
abound, is governed by intellect in the use of its senses ;
for these are given to it as guides t and when it arrives
there, they direct it to the flowers, and enable it to as<
certMH wbioh contains the treasures it is in seardi <^;
but having made this discovery, its instinct teaches it to
imbibe the nectar and load its hiod legs with pollen. —
Again : its senses, luded by memory, enable it to retrace
its way to the hive, where instina once more impels
it m its various c^erations. So that when we asci^je
a certain degree of intellect to these animals, we do
not place them upon a par witli man; smoe all the
most wMiderful parts of then* econtooy, and those ma-
nipulations that Qcceed all our powers, we admit not
to be the contrivance of the animals themselves, but
the necessary results of &culties implanted in their
ctHistitulioQ at the flist creation by their II^Iakek. 1
may further repeat, that the mere &ct of being en-

j J ^th the external organs of sense, proves a cer-

l^ree of intellect in insects. For if in all their
IS they were directed merely by their instinct.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. SS

they might do as well without sight, hearing, smell, touch,
&c. but having these senses and their organs, it seems to
me a necessary consequence, that they must have a suf-
ficient degree of intellect, memory, and judgement, to en-
able them advantageously to employ them/

There is this difference between intellect in man, and
the rest of the animal creation. Their intellect teaches
them to follow the lead of their senses, and make such
use of the external world as their appetites or instincts
incline them to, — and this is their wisdom ; while the in-
tellect of man, being associated with an immortal princi-
ple, and being in connexion with a world above that
which his senses reveal to him, can, by aid derived from
heaven, control those senses, and bring under his instinc-
tive appetites, so as to render them obedient to the to ^ye-
fbovixov, or governing power of his nature : and this is

HIS WISDOM.

I am, &c.

VOL. iv< D

LETTER XXXVIII.

INTEBNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS CONTINUED.

RESPIRATION.

" Life and flame have this in common/' says Cuvier,
*< that neither the one nor the other can subsist without
air ; all living beings, from man to the most minute ve*
getable, perish when they are utterly deprived of that
fluid*." The ancients, however, not perceiving insects
to be furnished with any thing resembling lungs^ took it
for granted that they did not breathe ; though Pliny
seems to hesitate on the subject^. But the microscopic
and anatomical observations of Malpighi, Swammerdam
and Lyonnet, and the experiments of more modem phy
siologists, have incontestably proved that insects are pro-
vided with respiratory organs, and that the respiration
of air is as necessary to them as to other animals. They
can exist indeed for a time in irrespirable air; and im-
mersion in hydrogen or carbonic acid gases is not, as I
have often ascertained, so instantly fatal to them as it
would be to vertebrate animals; but like them, thiey

* Anat, Conipar. iv. ^6.

^ Plin. Hist. Nat. L xi. c. 3. Even Aristotle seems to have given
into the common opinion. De Bespirat, c, Z, 9. &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 35

q^eedily perish in air altogether deprived of its oxyg^en,
or placed in situations to which all access to this essential
element is excluded. Their respiration too of atmo*
spheric air produces the same change in it with that of
the vertebrate animals, the oxygen disappearing, and
carbonic acid gas being produced in its place* Bayle
had long since ascertained, that when bees, flies, and
other insects were placed under an exhausted receiver,
they often perished^ : and the same effect was even o]>
served by the ancioits to ensue, when. their bodies were
by any means covered with oil or grease, which necessa-
rily closed the orifices of their respiratory organs^*

But for the first series of experiments ascertaining the
necessity of a supply of air to insects, and their conver*
ston of it into carbonic acid, we are indebted to the illus-
trious Scheele^ ; and his experiments have been repeated
and confirmed by Spallanzani, Vauquelin, and other
chemists. The former found, that when caterpillars and
maggots were confined in vessels containing only about
eleven cubic inches of atmospheric air^ though furnished
with sufficient food, they soon died, and sooner when the
space was more confined^. He ascertained too, that a
larva weighing only a few grains consumed, in a given
time, as much oxygen as an amphibious animal a thou-
sand times as voluminous *. A male grasshopper {Acrida
viridissima K.) in six cubic inches of oxygen lived but
eighteen hours, and the female placed in eight cubic
inches of atmospheric air, only thirty-six hours. The

* PhUos. Trans, v. 2011. Works, 4to. i, 79, 112.

^ Aristot. HisL AninuU, /. viiL e. ^,

^ On Air and Fire, 148, 155. ^ TracU, 208.

' Mem. on Eespirat, 75.

d2

36 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

usual tests in both instances detected the conversion of
the oxygen present into carbonic acid*. Precisely the
same result was obtained by Sorg and Ellis, who, having
placed a number of flies in nine cubic inches of atmo-
spheric air, found them all dead by the third day, the
oxygen entirely vanished, and a quantity of carbonic acid
nearly equal in bulk produced^.

It is ascertained too, that insects like otlier animals
require in the process of respiration not merely oxygen,
but such a mixture of it with nitrogen or azote as com-
poses atmospheric air : for Vauquelin found that a grass-
hopper placed in six cubic inches of oxygen lived only
half as long (eighteen hours) as another placed in eight
inches of atmospheric air ; its breathing was much more
laborious, and it died when not more than one-twentieth
of the oxygen had been converted into carbonic acid^.
That a large quantity of oxygen penetrates all parts of
insects, is evident also from the acid prevalent in the
fluids of most of them, as likewise from the wonderful
power of their muscles. That azote is alsp received,
seems probable from the ammonia which has been ex-
tracted from the fluids of many, and from the rapid pu-
trescence of these animals^.

The mode, however, in which the respiration of insects
is carried on, difiers greatly from that which obtains in
the higher animals. They have no lungs, no organs
confined to a particular part of the body, by means of
which the whole of the blood is regularly exposed to the

' Ann, de Chimie, xii. 273.

'' F. L. A. Sorg, Respirat, Insect, et Vemt, Ellis, Inquiry ifUo
Chang, prod, on Atmosph. Air by Bespirat. &c. 69.
«= Ann. de Ckimie, xii. 273. «* Sprengel, Commentar. &c. 27— .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 37

action of the inspired air. They do not breathe through
the mouthy but through- numerous orifices called spiracles^
and the respiratory vessels connected \nth theise are con-
ducted to every part of the body. In some indeed, that
we have included under the denomination of insects, as
the Arachnida^ an approach is made to the branchial
respiration of fishes.

The respiratory apparatus of insects may be consi-
dered under two principal heads : — viz. the orifices or
spiracles, and other external organs by which the air is
alternately received and expelled ; and the internal ones,
by which it is distributed. Each of these is well worthy
of your attention.

I. The external respiratory organs of insects may be
divided into three kinds. Spiracles ; Respiratory plates s
and branch^form and other pneumatic appendages.

i. Spiracles^ (iS^/raa//a), or breathing pores, are small
orifices in the trunk or abdomen of insects, opening into
the trache(3e^ by which the air enters the body, or is ex-
pelled from it**. They may be considered principally as
to their composition and substance; shape ; colour; maS"
nitude; situation; and number.

1. Composition and substance. Perhaps you may not
be aware that the structure of these minute apertures is
not so simple as at the first view it may seem ; but when
you recollect that by them the insect breathes^ you will
suspect that provision may be made for their opening
and shutting. A spiracle therefore, speaking an£^lpgi-i>

• Plate XXIII. Fig. 2. and Plates VIII. IX. XVI. XXIX. c\ H\

^ Moldenhawers {Anat, de Pflanz. 314 — .) affirms that the spira-*
cles of most insects are quite closed : but Sprengel {CovmientaV' ^ H,)
has satisfactorily refuted that opinion.

S8 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cally, mBy be re^rded in numerous cases as a Tooulfi
closed by lips. In caterpillars and many other insects,
the substance of the crust where it surrounds the spiracle,
is elevated so as to form a ring round it. The lips, pro-
perly speaking are formed of a single cartilaginous piece
or platform, with a central lon^tudinal cleft or opening
wfaen closed oflen extending the whole length of the
piece*; but in some appearing always open and circu-
lar ; of the former description are those covered by the
elytra in the common cockchafer ; and of the latter, those
that are not so covered : in some, as in the antepectoral
pMr of the mole-cricket, there ^pear to be no lips, the
orifice being merely closed with hairs". Though the
aperture is usually in the middle of the platform, in the
female of Ih/tiscus marginalis, it is nearer the posterior
ude, the anterior or upper lip being the longest. In the
majority, the mouth or cleft is nearly as long as the spi-
racle; yet in the puss-moth (Centra Vinula) it is shorter'.
Some spiracles, however, are unilabiate, or have only one
lip. This is the case with Gonyleptes K. and perhaps
others'. The lips are usually horizontal, but sometimes
they dip so as to make the spiracle appear open.

With regard to the substance of these organs, it is more
or less cartilaginous, and probably elastic; the surface
frequendy appears to be corrugate or platted ; this is very
distincdy seen in the stag-beetle and the cockchafer : in
the last insect, under a powerful magnifier, we are told
that the lips appear to consist of parallel cartilaginons
processes, s^uurated by a cellular web*. In some species

' PuTR XXIII. Fig. S. <• Sprengel, Camtenlar. § 7.

aid. f. m.f. 80. " Plat« XXIX. Fjq. «3.

' IM, 8.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. $9

of Copris the corrugations form a perplexed labyrinth ;
in the caterpillar of the puss-moth the plaits are so nar-
row as to look like rays^ ; and in some Dynastida the
lips approach to a lamellated structure* Again, in Hy^
dropkilus carabotdes the upper lip, and in Dytiscus ctT"
eyp^iexusj both lips seem formed of elegaikt {dumes^ : a
similar ornament distinguishes the inner edge of the lips
in the caterpillar of the great goat-moth {Cossus lig-
nipercUi) and others ^. In the grub of the rhinocero$<-
beetle (Oryctes nasicomis) the margin of the lower or in-
ner lip is decorated by pinnated rays, which enter the
cellular membrane that covers the upper lip^ ) in this
krra, and that likewise of the cockchafer, the two lips
are formed of different substances ; in the last the upper
or outer one consists of a perforated cellular membranis,
through which the air can pass, while the lower or inner
one is a cartilaginous valve that closes the orifice^: in
the former this valve is surmounted by a boss ^ In the
pupa of Smerinthus PopuH, a hawk-moth not uncommon,
and of some dragon-^ies {LibeUtda depressa\ the margin
of the two lips is crenated, probably with notches which
alternate, that the mouth of the spiracle may shut more
accurately <^« The substance is unusually thick In the
spinose caterpillars of butterflies ; and in the pupa of one^
Hesperia Proteus^ it is villose.

Under the present head I may observe, that in some
cases, as in the puss-moth, and the larva of the common

> Sprengel 7. U iii./ 30. *» im. t. il/ 92. i m.f. S9

« Plavb XXIX. Fig. 29.

^ Ibid. Fio. 16. SprcDgeU Ilnd. 9. L 1;/. 4-6.

« Ibid. 9. /. L/. 9. f Plate XXIX. Fio. 16. a.

s Sprengel, Ibid. L iii./ 27-

40 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

water-beetle (JDy^^scu^ margtnalis\the spiracles arexslbsed
by a semifluid substance, which however, according to
Sprengel, is permeable to the air*. The animal, where
these organs are furnished with lips, has doubtless, by
means of a muscular apparatus, the power of opening and
shtUting them : this is done, we are told, by elevating and
depressing, or rather by contracting and relaxing them.
Sorg counted in one case {Oryctes nasicomis) twenty^ and
in another {Acrida viridissima) Jlfty^ of these motions to
take place in little more than two minutes^ : but the
quickness and force of this motion is not always uniform ;
for the same physiologist observed, that in Carabus au-
ratus^ when feeding or moving its body rapidly, the con-
traction of the spiracles took place at very short intervals ;
but when it was fasting, and its motions were slow, the
intervals were longer^ : it is probable also, that the tem-
perature may accelerate or retard the motion. In the
summer I examined a specimen of MeloUmtha hirticola^
that had indeed been somewhat injured, with this view :
the pulses of the abdomen, which alternately rose and fell,
were at about the rate of the pulse of a man in health,
six;ty in a minute, and the spiracles appeared to me to
keep pace with this motion : later in the year, whta the
temperature was lower, as I was walking, I took a spe-
cimen of some grasshopper {Locusta Leach). Upon

* Sprongel, Commentar, 7 — •

^ Sprengel, from whom I have borrowed this quotation, expresses

*the time by " scripuh hora.** This word is of uncertain meaning,

being scarcdy ever applied to Hrne ; but as it means the twenty-fourth

part of an ounce, Faher conjectures it may mean the same portion

of an hour.

"^ Soi^,, DtsqidsU^ circa respiraU intcct. 27, 46, 66. Sprengel uin

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 41

viewing it under a lens, I observed one of the convex pec*
toral spiracles open and shut, and the interval between
two breathings appeared nearly half a minute.

2. With regard to their shape^ spiracles vary consi-
derably. In general we may observe that the abdomi-
nal ones are usually flat, while those of the trunk are
often convex*. Sometimes they are very narrow and
nearly linear, as in many pupae of Lepidoptera, and those
in the metathorax of the sandwasps {Ammophzla K.) and
affinities; at others they are wider and nearly elliptical,
as in Lucanu^ and many Lamellicom beetles : again, in
Copris they ire circular ; in Calandra Palmarum ovate;
in Dytiscus oblong^; in Stapkylinus olensXxxnxiisLtei in
Crom/leptes nearly of the shape of a horse-shoe^ ; and
probably many other forms might be traced, if a thorough
investigation with this view were undertaken.

3. The colour of spiracles will not detain us long. In
the caterpillars of Lepidoptera this is often so contrasted
with that of the rest of the body, as to produce a strik-
ing and pleasing efKsct. Thus when the body is of a
dark colour, they are usually of a pale one^ ; or if the
body is pale, they are dark% or surrounded with a dark
ririg^. This contrast is often rendered more striking by
their position with regard to the partial colours that
often ornament caterpillars : in those whose sides are
decorated by a longitudinal stripe, the spiracles are
often planted in it « ; or just above it ** ; or between two^ :

• Chabrier iurle Vol des Ins. c. 1. 454.

»» Plate XXIX. Fig. 28. A", « Ibid. Fig. 23.

* Sepp. I. iv. L ii./ 3. • Uid. t. xiv./. 3.
' Ibid. t. v./, 6, 7. " Ibid. t. If. 7, 8.
>» md. t. x.f. 6, 7. . ' I^' V. /. i./. 3.

/

42 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

•

HI some hawkmoths the. intermediate ones are set in
white or pale spots, which gives great life to the animal.
In general, in perfect insects the most prevalent colour
i^ bufi^ or reddish-yellow. In the larva of the great ursr-
iat'-heede {Dytiscus Ttutrginalis) these organs resemble
the iris of the eye, beii^ circular with concentric rings,
alternately pale and dark^.

4. The size of spiracles varies considerably. Those
in the larva last mentioned are so minute as to be scarcely
visible except under a lens, while those behind the fore-
l^s in GryUotalpa are a full line in length, and those in
the pleura of Macropus accentifer^ a Brazilian Capricorn
beetle, are more than twice as long. In the same species
they are often found of different sizes ;-^thus the anal
pairs in the Dytiscus lately alluded to, I mean in the per-
fect insect, are much larger than the rest^, probably that
the animal may imbibe a larger quantity of air when it
rises to the surface of the water, where it suspends itself
by the tail. In those Lamellicom beetles in which the
terminal part of the abdomen is not protected by the
el3rtra, the ctyoered spiracles are the largest

5. Under the next head, the situation of spiracles, I
shall not only consider the part of the body in which
they are situated, but likewise their position in the crust ;
to which last, as it will not detain us long, I shall first
call your attention. Their position in this respect is
most commonly obliques but in the abdomen of the above
Dytiscus they are transverse, and in a larva I possess, pro-
bably of an ElateTj they are longitudinal. In spinose

* Sphinx Labruic€B Merian Surmatiu 34.
«» Plate XXIX. Fig. 28. A".

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 48

caterpillars these organs are generally planted between
two spines, one being above and the other below. The
lateral line of the body most commonly marks their si-
tuation ; but in many cases they become ventral, and in
others dorsal. The most important circumstance, how-
ever, connected with the present head is their appropria^
tion to particular segments or parts of the body, for, like
the ganglions of the spinal marrow, they are distributed
to almost every segment. Let us take a summary view
of their arrangement in this respect.

No insect has any spiracle in the head ; but in cater-
pillars and many other larvce there is a pair in the Jirst
segment of the trunk. This is also to be found in the other
states, but is not easily detected in the pupa oi Lepidop'
tera : in the Coleoptera order, in the grub of the Lamel-
licom beetles, it is extremely conspicuous, and planted in
the side of the first segment*; in other Coleopterous grubs
it is not so readily found, but probably its station is some-
where behind the base of the arms, where it is very visi-
ble in that of Staphylinus. In the imago of insects o
this order, this antepectoral spiracle has been overlooked,
and indeed is not soon discovered : to see it clearly, the
manitrunk should be separated from the alitrunk ; and
then if you examine the l&wer side of the cavity, you will
see a pair of, usually, large spiracles planted just above
the arms, in the ligament that unites these two parts of the
trunk to each other : in the common rove-beetle, however,
{Staphylinus olens) you may easily see it without dissec-
tion^. In the Orthoptera it is situated behind the arms,

• Swammerd. Bibl. Nat. L xxvii./. 5. Compare Stunn DeuUch.
Fn, L t v./. r.

* Plate XXIX. Fig. 12. d.

44 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INbECTS.

as in Gtyllotalpa : or between them and the prothorax,
as in Blatta : in the Hemiptera and Neuroptera proha^
bly. the situation is not very different. In the Lepidop^
tera this pair of spiracles is planted just before the base
of the upper or primary wings ^ : a similar situation, I
suspect, is appropriated to it in the Trickoptera, but co-
vered by a tubercle or scale. Something similar has
been noticed by M. Chabrier, in. the same situation and
circumstances, in the collar of Hymenoptera^, In nu-
merous Diptera this breathing pore is planted on each
side between the collar and the dor solum above the

«

arms ^9 and in Hippcbosca in the collar itself^.

In LepidopterouSy Coleopterous^ and some other larvae,
the two segments of the body corresponding with the
alitrunk in the perfect insect, are without spiracles, nei-
ther have they in this state, though pneumatic organs
have been discovered % any real ones in that part: but
not so the remaining orders, all of which have these or-
gans in that section of the trunk. To begin with the
Orthoptera : — in Blatta there seems to be a long narrow
one behind the intermediate leg ; in the Gtyllotalpa there
is one in the posterior part of the pleura ; and in Lo^
custa Leach, above both the intermediate and hind legs/.
It is probable, that in general those that have no spira-
cles in the manitrunk have Jour in the alitrunk, which
seems the natural number belonging to the trunk. In
many of the Heteropterous Hemiptera in the parapleura

• De Geer, i. 81. /. v./. 10./. ^ Sur le Vol det Ins. c. i. 469.
c Reaum. iv. 246. t. xix./. 8. *.

' In this tribe, which I forgot to remark before (see Vol. III.
p. 551 — .) there seems hoxh prothorax and coUar.

• Vol. III. p. 552, 562. &c.

' Plate VIII. Fio. 14. h", n".

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 45

there is an open spiracle without lips*, to which, as in
that beautiful bug Sctitdlera Stockeriy a channel some-
times leads. The space in which this spiracle is planted
in other genera of bugs {Pentatoma &c.) is covered with
a kind of membranous skin, often much corrugated**. In
the aquatic insects of this section, and many terrestrial
ones, as Meduvius, &c. this spiracle is obsolete. There
is another circumstance, possibly connected with their
respiration, relating to many of the bugs, which may be
mentioned here. If you examine Pentatoma rnfipes^ a
very common one, you will find between the scapula and
parapleura a long orifice or chink ; this upon a closer
inspection, under a good magnifier, you will see com-
pletely filled with minute stiff hairs or bristles, which
fi'inge the posterior margin of the scapula^. In a Bra-
zilian species oi Lygdeus L. {seamaculatus K. M.S.) with
incrassated posterior thighs, these hairs are. replaced by
lamellae which have the aspect oigiUs. A red, vertical,
convex spiracle, with its orifice towards the head, and
terminating posteriorly in a kind of conical sac, is situated
towards the hinder part of the pleura in the giant water-
scorpion {Belostoma grandis^); this seems analogous to
one lately mentioned in the mole cricket In the other
section of this Order it is not easy to decypher the parts
of the under side of the alitrunk. In Fulgora^ Tettigonia^
and many others of its genera, there appears to be more
than one opening into the chest ; but whether they are of
a pneumatic nature or not, can only be ascertained by an
inspection of the living aniiriaL There is a very visible

• Plate XXIX. Fig. 14, 15. m". ^ Ibid. Fig. 15. a.

^ Ibid. Fig. 14, 15. b. ^ Ibid. Fig. 25. it".

46 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

f

«piracle orer each of the four last legs of the LibeUulina^
but in the remainder of the Neuroptera Order they have
eluded my search. In the Hymenoptera and DipUra
they are nearly in the same situation, being placed be-
hind the wings <m each side of the metathorax ; in the
latter Order with the poiser near them on the inner side^ :
in this also, the spiracles of the trunk are without lipi^
except in the larvae, but are often merely an orifice,
sometimes fringed with hairs ; this is particularly con-
spicuous in SyrphuSf in which these orifices are very
large, and in some species closed by an elegant double
firinge of white hairs. This is doubdess to prevent the
entrance of any particles of dust or the like.

We are next to consider the situation of the spiracles
of the abdomen : these which are supposed to be appro-
priated exclusively to inspiration, are usually more nu-
merous than those of the trunk, by which it is probable
that expiration is performed, and have principally atr
tracted the notice of ^tomologists : they are either dor-
sal, lateral, or ventral. In DytiscuSj Copris, &c. amongst
the beetles, all the j^piracles are dorsal ; in the larvae of
Coleoptera and Lepidoptera they are lateral ; and in the
Heteropterous Hemiptera they are usually ventral : in
Dynastes M^L. they are commonly found of all three de-
scriptions ; — ^the three first being dorsal^ the two next /a-
teraly and the last pair ventral^. In some instances, as
in Perga Kirbii Leach, and probably other Hymenoptera^
these organs are planted in that portion of the dorsal
segments which turns under, as was observed in a former

* Chabrier iur le Voldes Ins, c. iii. t. vi./. 4. Sa, Sp.
b Plate IX. Fig. 2h m".
"^ Plate VIII. Fig. 9.

INTSRNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, 47

letter*, and becomes ventral. GenenJly there is a pair
of spiracles to each s^ment^ and in those insects that
have a hypochandriack joint^ there is often a spbrade in
it. The last segment of the abdomen is always without
these orifices, as is the basal one in VeliUf Banatray and
scNtne other bugs. A singular anomaly distinguishes the
UbeUidina : they appear to have :^o abdominal spiracles %
yet I have seen the abdomen of LibeUula depressa when
reposing, contract and dilate alternately, firom whence it
follows that this part is concerned in respiration. Spreiv-
gel says that the larvas in this tribe have seven or nine
on each side^, and Reaumur speaks of them as disco-*
verable in the pnpa^ I have carefully eicamined the
pupa-skin of most of the genera of Ubellulina^ under a
powerful magnifier, but have not succeeded in discover-
ing any thing like these organs in the abdomen. The
Ephemera and probably the other Netiroptet*a have ab-
dominal spiracles^. M. Latreille observed one on eaeh
side of the base of the scale on the footstalk of the abdo-
men in ants^. Generally the abdominal spiracles may
be described as planted in the crust of the insect; but in
many cases their station is in the membranous fdids,
which I have therefore named Xhepulmonarium^ that some-
times separate the dorsal from the ventral segments: these
folds allow of a considerable distenticm of the abdomen^
which is probably necessary when all the air-vessels are
fiill. In a gravid Ichneumon I once saw it enlarged to
more than twice its natural size by means of this mem-
brane, through which the eggs were distinctly visible.—

* Vol. III. p. 706—, »» Ibid. p. 709.
° Sprengel, Ctrnvnient, 3. '^ Ilnd,

• vi. 39a ^ De Geer, ii. 635. » Fmrmis, 22.

48 INTESNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before I bid adieu to this subject, I must say a few words
upon the sitaation of the organs in question in the my-
riapods. In hdus, in each segment b a pair of orifices
which have usually been regarded t\& spiracles, but M. Savi
found that these briiices opened into vesicles containing
a fetid fluid, and upon a very close examination he dis-
covered the real spiracles above the base of the legs, in
connexion with tracheiE*. In some of the larger species
o£ Scolopendris large open spiracles in the same situation
are extremely visible''. SaUigera Lam. (Cermatia Illig.)
presents a singular anomaly : — a single series of spiracles
of the usual form, each planted ina cleft of the posterior
margin of the dorsal scuta, runs along the back of the
animal^ : unless we may suppose that, like the seeming
spiracles of lulus just mentioned, these are merely ori-
fices by which it covers itself widi some secretion.

6. A few words upon the number of spiracles.— If you
examine the common dog-tick {Ixodes Ricimis), you will
find (Hily one of these organs on each side of the abdo-
men''; the Libetltdina, as we have seen, have only_^r,
all in the trunk ; in the Dynastid/e, MelolontAa, and the
larva of Ih/tiscus, there are /ourteen , sixteen in the Co-
prida i eighteen in Dytiscus, and probably the majority
of Coleoptera, both larva and imago, and Lepidoptera ,■
and a pair to each segment except the last, in the My-
riapods'

ii. Respiratory plates {Respiratoria). Tlie nearest ap-

•vaz, ^c. itiUo lului fistid. 14 — .

are particularly visible in an undescribed Ea«t Indian ipecie*,
K. M.S.] with Bcuta alternately black and yellow.
XXIX. Fie. 20. ^. * De Geer, vn. (. vi./. 3.

INTERKAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 49

proach to spiracles is made by tbose remarkable plates
that are found in such larvae of Diptera^ as in that state
inhabit substances that might impede or altogether stop
the entrance or exit of the air by the ordinary spiracles^
such as .dead or liyihg flesh/ dung, or the like. The
Creator therafore, as he has seen it good for wise rea-
sons^ to commission, certain insects to feed on unclean
food, has fitted them for the offices that devolve upon
them, ai^d has placed their orifices for breathing in plates
at each extremity of the body. There are usually two
of these plates at the head, and two at the tail. In the
grub of the common flesh-fly {Musca 'cdrnaria\ at the
junction of the first s^ment of the body withthe second,
two of these plates are planted, which are coAcave and
circular, with a denticulated margin ; in the cavity near
the lower side is a round spiracle. These plates the
animal can withdraw within the body, so as to preveogt
this spiracle from being stopped up by any. greasy snb**
jstance^. The posterior extremity of this grub, is trimr
cated, and has a large and deep cavity surrounded by
several fleshy prominences : at the bottom of this are
two oval b]X>wn (daites, in each of which are thnee. oval
spiracles; plaictsd obliquely : . by the contraction of the
fleshy promiriences, this cavity also can be iclosed at the
will of the animal^. In some.cases, several stiff rays or
spines replace the prominences^. In Echinomjfia gvQssa
and others the "anal plates appear not to be perforated,
being surmounted only by a central boss 5; .but this,

* Vol. I. p. 251—. »> De Geer vi. 67i t. in.f. JO. ss. 14.
« IM. 6iB. i. iii./ .13. ^ Platb XIX. Fic. 11. «.

• Reaum. iv. 375—. t. xxn.f, 7, 8.

VOL. IV. E

50 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

most probably, as in the ceise of dktrus Ovis^^ is a vahe
that closes the respiratory orifices. In the gad-^fiy of
the ox (flS. Bovis) there are no plates at lAi€ anterior ex-
tremity of the body; but those plants in the oiker end
are very remarkable, attd demand particular attentic^.
Each is separated by a curved line into two unequal por-
tions ; the smallest of which is contiguous to the convex
beily, and the largest to the concave back of the animaL
This last is distinguished by two hard, brown, kidneyi-
sfaaped pieces, a little elevated with the concave sides
turned towards each other : in this sinus is a single, small^
white spot, which appears to be a spiracle : in the smallest
poartion are eight minute circular orifices, arranged in a
Kne^. . As the only communication which this grub has
with the atmosphere is at its anal extremity, it has no
oecasic^ for rei^iratory organs at the othe7\ The gad^
fly of tihe horse (£B. Epii, &c.) which has no communi-
cation at all with external air, breathing that which ia
received into ^ stomach, has these plates at both ends
of the body.

iii. Respiratcrry Appendages^ ^ Th^se ntay be divide
iiito ttsoo kinds ; those by which the animal has immediate
e^mifmiinteation with the atmosphere, and those by which
it exjtracts air fi'om water.

1. To l^egin with theirs/. These are often^fbund in in-
sects which, during their two first states^ live in the waten
Ko better example, nor one more easy to be examined)

■ Reaun). iv. 555. U xxxv./. 10. ss.

^ Ibid, 519—. t. xxxvii./. 3, 4,

* Plates XVI. Fig, 9. a b, XIX. Figi 9, 10, 1^, IS. a. XXIX.

Fig. 3-7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 51

of this Structure, can be selected, than the gnat {Culex L.).
You must have occasionally observed in tubs of rain>-
water, numerous little wriggling worm-like animals, which
frequently ascend to the surface ; there remain a while,
and then bending their head under the body rapidly
sink to tlie bottom again* These are the larvae of some
species of the genus just named ; and if you take one out
of the water and examine it^ you will perceive that it is
fiirnished neur the end of its body with a singular organ,
which varies in length according to the species, and forms
an angle- with the last segment but one *• The mouth of
this organ is tunnel-shaped, and terminates in five points
like a star ; and by this it is usually suspended at the sur-*
fiice of the water, and preserves its communication with
the atmosphere : in its interior is a tube which is c(>n-
nected widi the trachea, and terminates in several open-
ings, visible undet a microscope, at the iiiotith of the or-
gan* The points or rays of the mouth when the animal
18 disposed to sink in the water, are used to close it, and
cut off its communication with the atmosphere. Wheri
the animal is immersed, a globule of air remains at-
tached to the end of the tube^ so t\M it is in fact of less
specific gravity than that element, asd it is not without
some effort that it descends to the bottom ; but when it
wishes to rise again, it has only to unclose the tube,
and it idses withcmt an effort to the surface^ and remains^
suspended for any length ef tinie< Its anal extremity is
dothed with bunches of hairs, which are furnished with
some repellent material which prevents their becoming
wet^ : it is this repellent quality that probably causes a

• Plate XIX- Fi&. 9. a, * Ibid. d.

£ 2

52 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dimple or depresi^ion of the surface, which if you look
narrowly you will discover round the mouth of the tube*.

When the gnat undergoes its first change and assumes
the pupa, instead of a single respiratory appendage it is
furnished with a pair, each in shape resembling a cor-
nucopia, and,' what is remarkable, placed near the oppo-
site extremity of the body, for they proceed from the up-
per side of the trtmk**. By these tubular horns, which
Reaumur compares to asses' ears *=, they respire, and are
suspended at the surface.

Other respiratory, tubes or horns are more complex.
The rat-tailed grub of a fly {ElopMlus pendultis) like the
gnat breathes by a tube: but as if the Creator willed
to show those whose delight it is to inyesttgate his works,
by how many varying processed lie ciEin- accomplish the
same end, this respiratory organ is of a construction to-
tally different from that we have been considering. It
is not fixed to the side of the tail, but is a continuation
of the tail itself, and is composed of two tubes, the iiiner
one, like the tube of a telescope, being retractile within
the other ^. The extremity, which is very sUnder, and
through which the ait finds admission by a pair of spi-
racles, terminates in five diverging hairs or rays, which
probably maintain it in equilibrio at its station at the
surface^. As these larvae seek their food amongst the
mud at the bottom of shallow pools, in which they are
constantly employed, tliey require an apparatus capable
of being lengthened or shortened, to ^uit the depth of

* Compare Swamm. Bibl, Nat, i. 154. L xxxi./, 5. Reaum. it.
601—. f. xliii. De Geer ti. 317—. t. xvii./. 2—8.
*» Swamm. Ibid. U xxxi./. 7i 8. « Reaum. iv. 607.
<* Plate XIX. Fig. \%a. * Reaum. iv. U uiAf. 2. e.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 5S

the water, that they may maintain their necessary com*
munication with the atmosphere ; and for this purpose a
single tube would not have been sufficient; therefore
Providence has furnished them with two^ and both are
extremely elastic, consisting of annular fibres, so as to
admit their being stretched to an extraordinary length.
Reaumur found that these animals could extend their
taik to near twelve times their own length. The m^
chanism by which the terminal piece is pushed forth or
retracted, is very curious, though extremely simple. Two
large parallel trachea, the direction of which is firom the
head of the grub to its tail, occupy a considerable por«>
tion of its interior : near the origin of the tail, where
they are very ample, they suddenly grow very small, so
as to form a pair of. very slender tubes, but so long that,
iii order to find room in a very contracted space, they
form numerous zigzag folds attached to the terminal
tube; when this issues from the outer tube« they conse-
quently begin to unfold, and when it is entirely disen-
gaged, they are become quite straight and parallel to each
other. Reaumur has figured them as being united at
the base of the inner tube * ; most probably, however,
they do not here stop short, but, as in other instances,
proceed to the end, and terminate in the two spiracles
mentioned above : he conjectures that when the animal
has occasion to push forth its respii'atory apparatus, it
injects into these vessels part of the air contained in the
body of the trachea, which of course would cause them
to unfold and push forth the tube^. When this insect
assumes the pupa, instead of its anal respiratory or-

» Reaum. iv. U xxx.f. 10. * Itnd. 447—.

5^ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

gan it has Jbtsr respiratory horns in the trunk near the
heads

The larva of the chamflBleoii^fly {Strati^omis Chamceleon)
is fiirnished with a respiratory organ of a still different
and more elegant structure, exhibiting some resemblance
to the tentacula of what are called sea anemonies. In
this larva the last joint of the body is extremely long,
and terminates in an orifice to receive the air, which is
surrounded by a circle of about thirty diverging rays,
consisting of beautifully feathered hairs or plumes*'. This
apparatus serves the same purpose with that above de-
scribed of the larva of the gnat. The feathery hairs are
so prepared as to repel the water, and thus to suspend
the animal by its tail at the surface, and preserve a con-
stant access of air. When it h^s occasion to sink, it
turns these hairs in and shuts the orifice, carrying down
with it an air-bubble that shines like quicksilver, and
which Swammerdam conjectures enables it again to be-
come buoyant when it wants to breathe*.

In the red aquatic larva of a small gnat {Chironomus
plumosus) there are two anal respiratory subcylindrical
horns, with the orifice fringed with hairs ^ ; and in an*
other gnat( Tiptdaanntdata L. ) Reaumur discoveredyjwr*'.
The larva of Tanypus maculatus^ whose remarkable legs
I formerly noticed^, exhibits in the interior of its trunk
two long, oval, opaque bodies, which De Geer conjec-
tures may be air-reservoirs ; these, when the animal as-
sumes the pupa, according to every appearance become
external^ and are placed on the back, precisely where the

* Reaum. iv. 456. t, xxxi./. 1—7. ** Pl'ate XIX. Fig. 13. a,
c BibL Nat ii. 44. " P|.ati: XIX. Fig. 10. a,

• Reaum. iv. /. iv./. 6. *, m. ^ Vol. II. p. 27S — .

I

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. &B

respiratory horns of aquatic pupae are usually situated, — >
they appear to terminate in a transparent point*. The
piipa of a Tipula observed by Reaumur, instead of two
has only one of these respiratory organs, in the form of a
very fine hair proceeding from the anterior end of the
trunk, and considerably longer than the animal itself^.

It is observable that aquatic insects that come to the
surface of the water for air, receive it at the anus, often
carrying it down with them as a brilliant bubble of quick*
silver. This is generally done by means of spiracles in
perfect insects, but in the water*scorpion tribe in that
state respiration is by means of a long hollow tube, con-
sisting of two concavo-convex pieces which apply exactly
to.each jother. This is found in both sexes, and there-
fore cannot be an ovipositor, as some have thought^.

These respiratory organs, however, are not invariably
confined to aquiztic larvae and pupae, for those of some
jqphidivorous flies have anal ones, and the pupa of Do//-
chqpus nobilitatus, or a fly nearly related to it, which is
terrestrial, has likewise a pair of long sigmoidal ones on
the back of the trunk ^. The pupa also of the rat^tailed
larvae just noticed as having four horns, resides under
the earthf the insect being only aquatic in its grub state.

2. I am next to consider those respiratory appendages
by which aquatic insects, since they do not come to the
surface for that purpose, i^pear to extract air for respi-
raticm from the water; so that they may be looked upon
in some degree as analogous to the ^f7/s of fishes : there
is, however, this difference between them — in fishes, the

» Dc Geer vi. 395—. /. xxiv./. 16, 18. d. * v. /. vi./ 1, 2.

* De Geer iii. 307. /. xviii./. 1, 2, 9.
•» Ibid. vi. 36. 194--. t lif. 2, 3. t.

56 INTERNAL ANATOMV OF INSKCTS.

bk>6d is conveyed in mkiute ramificaitions of the arteries
to the sdr&ce of the branchial laminse, through the mem-*
braiies of which they abstract the air coinbined with the
water ; but as insects have no circulation^ the process in
them must be different, and their branchifprm appen-^
dages may be regarded as presenting some analogy
rather than any affinity to those of fishes. The firist ap-
proach to this structure is exhibited by the pupa of a
giiat lately mentioned {Ckironomus ptt4mosu8) ; for on each
tide of the trunk this animal has a pencil consisting of
five hairs el^antly feathered, which, when they diverge,
form a beautiful star ; its anus also is furnished with a
&n-shaped pencil of diverging hairs*; .

On most pf the abdominal segments of the larvae and
pupae of the Trichaptera [Phrygariea lu.) are a number
of white membranous floating threads, arranged in bun-
dles, ^^oMr on each segment, two above and two below,
and traversed longitudinally by several air-vessels or
hrdnchine^ which run in a serpentine direction, growing
more slender as they approach the extremity, and iii some
places sending forth very fine ramifications, — these are
their respiratory organs**. The caterpillar also of a little
aquatic moth (5q^^5 stratiotalis) at first sight appears to
be covered on each side with hairs, but which examined
"under a microscope are found to be branching fiatti^h
filaments, each furnished with tubes from the irache€e.
TTiese cateipillars have also the semblance of spiracles,
but apparently found in the usual situation «• The larva
of a little beetle often mentioned in my letters {Gyrinus

• Plate XVI. Fig. 9. a. h,

b DeGeerii. 539—. t xi./. 12, 16, &c.

• Jbid, i. 5S6— . t, xxxvii./. 2—6,

INTEBNAL ANATOlfy OF' INSECTS* 57

Naiator\\s furnished on each side of every abdominal
seginent with a long, hairy, slender, aciite, conical pro-
cess,, of the substance of the segment, through each of
which an air-tube meanders ; the last segme|it but one
\\BsJbur of these processes, longer than the rest*.

Laminose or fbliaceous respiratory app^dages distin-
guish the sides of the abdomen of the larvae and pi^ae of
the Ephemera^ whose history you found so intei^esting^.
In them these organs wear much the appearance oi giUs.
In the different species they vary both in their number
and structure. With regard to their number, some have
only six pair of them, while others have seven. In their
structure the variations are more numerous, and some-
times present to the admiring physiologist v^^ beautiful
forms ^. They usually consist of two branches, but occa-
sionally are single, with one part folding over the other,
as in one figured by Reaumur, which precisely resembles
the leaf of some plant, the air-vessels or bronchite in con-
nextcm with the trachem brainQhing and traversing it in
all directions; like the yeins, of leaves**. The double ones
differ in form. In the larva and pupa of Ephemera ml-
gata thisre are sixoi these double false gills on each side
of the abdomen, the three last segments being without
them ; each branch consists of a long fusiform piece, ra-
ther tumid and terminating in a poiiit, which is fringed
on each side with a number of flattish filaments, blunt
at the end. An air-vessel from the trdchea enters the
gill at its base; is first divided into two larger branches,

* De Geer iv. 362—. U xiii. J* 16—19.

b Vol. I. p. 279—. U. 369—.

^ See Reaum. vi. ^ xlii.— xlvi. and Plate XXIX; Fig. 3 — 5.

** Reaum. Ibid, t xlv./. 2.

98 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

tttch of whici) enters a branch of the false ffiH. These
branches send forth on each, side numerous lesser rami-
ficstions, one of which enters each of the filaments". In
another species (£. vespertina) each fitlse gill presents
the appearance of a pair of ovate leaves with a long
acumen, and the air-vessels represent the Midrib cd* the
lea^ with veins branching &om it on each side^ ; end, to
name no more, in E.Jusco-grisea, one branch represents
the leaf of a Begtmia, the sides not being symmetrical,
with its veins, while the other consbts only of numerous
branching iUaments'^. In other aquatic larvte, as in that
ef'the common May-fly (SemMis lutaria Latr.), these ^>-
ptsodages ctmsist of several joints''.

By the above apparatus these aquatic animals are en-
^ed to separate the air from the water, as the fish by
their gills ; but how this s^aratlon is znade has not been
preoisely explained. The false gills in many species are
kept in continual and intense agitation. When they
move briskly to one side, Reaumur conjectures they may
receive the air, and when they return back they m^
emit it °. This brisk motion probably disengages it from
die water. In many species, when in repose, th^ are
hoA upon the back of the animal ', but in others they are
not".

The larvs of the Agrionid/B appear to respire like
those of the Ephemera, &c. by means of long foliaceous

• PtATE XXIX. Pig. 5. De Geer n. 624—.

" Plate XXIX. Fig. 4, De Geer Ifnd. 647—.

" Plate XXIX. Fig. 3. De Geer Ibu(. 653—.

■' Plate XXIX. Fig. 6. De Geer Ibid. 727—.

' Reaum. vi. 465. ' Ibid. I. xlii./. 4, 5. Dc Geer ii. 633.

• /6irf. 648. (. xvii./: II. 12.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IKSBCTS. 5^

ImJunse or &lse gills filled with aiil'-vessels ; but insteul
of being ventral^ they proceed frorti tb^ unus. They are
three in number, one dorsal and two lateral, perpendi-
cular to the horiaon, of a lanceolate $hape$ beautiftilly
veined, with a longitudinal middle nervure, bom which
others diverge towards the margin, which are probably
bronchice. They arc n»ed by the animal, which swims
like a fish, as fins, but it does not appear to imbibe the
water like the other LibeUtdin^^ nor to propel itself by
ejecting it,— ^a circumstance which furnishes an additional
^argument for the moire received opinion^ that thisaelion
in them is for the purpose of respiration as much aa
for motion ^

The larvae and pupae of the Libelltdince^ receive the
water and air that they respire by a large anal aperture,
which is closed at the will of the a^^kilBal by jfive hard^
moveable, tnangular, concavo«conve:^ pieces, all very
acute and fringed with hahra. These pieces are placed
so that there is one above, which is the largest of all ;
one on each side, which are the smallest, and two below ;
when these are closedi they form together a conical point ^.
Sometimes only three of these pieces are conspicuous^^ :
diree other cartUagina«(s pieees> resembling the valve
of a bivalve shell, <^bse the passago within the pointed
pieces^. At this orifice the water is received ; and when,
by an internal process to be de$qribed slberwiu'ds, it haa
parted with its oxygen, is again e:$pelled»

Under this head 1 shall mention a &ct which may be
connected with respiration of the insects concerned. In

» Vol. hi. p. 154. De Geer ii. 697--. t. xxi./. 4, 5, VZ,
•» De Geer Ibid, 606—. L \nii.f, 6.
•^ Reauni. vi. 393. L xxxvi./. 8, 9. 1. 1.
^ Jbid, 395. t xxxvi./. 8—9. c. c.

60 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dissecting a species of Nociua related to N. Pronvibaj
but I do not recollect the particular species, — at the base
of the abdomen of the male I discovered two bunches
of long fkwnrcploured parallel hairs, planted each in an
oval plate, plane above, but below convex and fleshy ;
while the plates remained attached to the insect, they
appeared to have a distinct pidsation. The hairs, which
are about half an inch long, diverge a little, and form a
tuft not very unlike a shaving-brush^. I have not
since met with this species, but I have preserved the
brush and scale. Somewhere in Bonnet's works, but I
do not recollect where, I have since found mention of a
similar fact in another moth*

II. Having considered the external respiratory organs
of insects, by which the air is received^ we are next to
consider the internal ones, by which it is distributed.
These are gilU ; tracheae and bronchia ; and sac^ or
pouches^.

i. Gills {Branchta^.) Having lately described what
may be denominated fake gUls, or branchiform ap.
pendages, I shall now call your attention to what may
be denominated trtie ones, which are peculiar to the
Arachnida Class : but what is remarkable, the animals
that breathe by them are very rarely inhabitants, of the
water, so that their functions cannot be perfectly analo-
gous to those of fishes.

In the Scorpion^ on each side of the four first ventral
segments a spiracle may be discovered, which has no

• Plate XXIX. Fig. 21. »» Marcel de Serres {Mem.

du Mtu, 1819. 137, &c.) calls the ttibular trachea that receive the
air, arterial tracked;, and the vesicular ones, which act as retervoirs,
pulntonart/ trachea, * P^iATE XXIX. Fig. 1. 2,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 61

lip as In other insects, but is merely a circular orifice*
These orifices do not lead to tracheae or vesicles^ but to
true giUsy which are situated belo<y a muscular web which
clothes the internal surface of the crust Each gill con-
sists of many semicircular very thin plates, of a dead
milky white, which are connected together at the dorsal
end like the leaves of a book. There aj^iear to be more
than twenty of these leaves, which when- strongly mag^
nified look transparent and destitute of any vessels.
Each g31 is fastened at the back to the spiracle*. In the
spiders also, gills are discoverable, but differently cir-
cumstaaced. On the under side of the abdomen, near
the base, is a transverse depression, on each side of which
is a longitudinal opening leading to a cavity, which is
covered from above by a cartilaginous plate. In this
cavily is situated a true g^ll, which is white, triangular^
and covered with a fine skin ; the leaves of this gill are
far. more numerous and much finer and softer than those
of the gills of the scorpion. On account of their softnessr
they have ofi»n the appearance of a slimy skin ; but their
lamisiAtedr structure shows itself very clearly in old spe*
cinieoi^. and in such as have been immersed in boiling
water**;'.

iL Trachea and Bronchia^, Parallel with each side
of xhe body of most insects and extending its whole length,
run two cylindrical tubes, which communicate wit^ the
spiracles!^, and from which issue, at points opposite to
those organs, other tubes which ramify ad infinitum^ ai^d

» Treviranus Ata^nid. 7 — . t» !• /. !• r. /. lO. Comp. iV. JXcL
d^Hitt. Nat. XXX. 4 IGF. Latmlle calls these gills Pneumobranchei.
* Treviranus IbitL ^. Plate XXIX. Pig. 1.
« Plate XXI. Fio. 3. a 6. «» Ibid. «.

62 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

are distributed to every part of the body *. The first of
these tubes are called the trochees and the latter the
bront^icBu This structure appears, however, not to be
universal: it is to be found in caterpillars and many
Dipterous \BXi.Bd\ but in that of the rhinoceros^beetle
{Oryetes nasicomis) and other Lamellicoms, ihebronchiig
branch directly from the spiracle, the bottom or interior
mouth of which is lined by a m^oabrane from which they
proceed^.; something similar has been observed to take
place in many insects in other states^ as the common
cockchafer^; the pupa of SmerintJms Poptdi^; in the
CicadcB^ ; in the Locust taribe^; and many oth^s. In
the Cossusy or larva of the great goat-moth, th^ trachea
commences ynAk the first spiracle, and finishes a littlb
beyond the laat, after which it diminishes considerably
in diameter, and terminates in several branches or bron*
cki^Pf which proceed to the anal extremity of the body'.
The bronchia which originate fit)m the trachece in the
vidmity of each spiracle, may be considered as consisting
m general of three packets \-^^dormL ones, whicb are dis^
tributed to the back and sides of the anunal ;^ visceral
ones, which ent^ the cavity of the body, and are lost
amongst the viscera and the caul; and gastric oiies,
which dipping from the trochees overrun the lower part
of the sides and belly''.

Hie trachea and bronchia consist of three tunics * ; the

» Plate XXL Fig. 3* A. *» Sprengel Conmentar. U i./. 1*

« Ib%d.f. 10. <* Ibid, t. ii./. 15.

* Malpigh. Be JSombyc. U iiL/. 3. ^ Ibid. t. iv./. 1.

' Lycmn€t Attat. 101. ^ Ibid.

^ Sprengel (ubi supr, 16.) says that he never found more than /tew/
but as Lyonnet affirms thcb| he has very often separated them (102),
his accuracy cannot be questioned.

INTBRNAL ANM'OMy OP INSECTS* 6S

Jirst or external one is a thickish membrane^ strengths
ened by a vast number of fibres or vessels, which form
round it a number of irreguliu* circles ; the ieeond is a
membrane more thin and transparent, withiout a vascu^
lar covering^ ; the third is foimed of a cartilaginotfi^
thread running in a spiral direction, which may be easily
unwound^. This structure gives a great elasticity to
these organs, so that they are capable of considei'dtble
tension, after which they return to their usual length ^«
The BronchiiB are cylindrical or slightly conical, insen-
sibly diminishing in size as they leave the trunk, in which
diey originate. In larvse, after losing their spiral fibre^
they f^pear to terminate in membr^e, but in perfect
insecte they pass into vesicles^. luvthe Cossus the truchea
is flattened, and in every segment, exc^t the first and
two last, is bound by a fleshy cord four or five times as
Aide as its threads. Where this occurs, there is a slight
constriction^-^probably here is a sphincter, by the con-^
tractimi of which Lyonnet supposes the tirackea may be
shut wh^i it is necessary to stop the passage cf xht air,
and direct it to any particular point ^. The structure
here described is admirably adapted for the purpose it is
intended to serve; for had these vei^els been composed
of membranef they could not possibly have been prevented
from collapsing; but by the intervention of a spiral cartila-^
ginous thread this accident is eftectually guarded against,
and the necessary tension of the tubes provided far.
However violent the contortions of the insect, however

* Lyonnet Anat, J 03.

^ IhicL Cuv. AnaL Comp, iv. 438. This author says that the m-
termediate tunic is the spiral thread (437). ^^ Lyonnet 10^.

** Ibid. 104. Sprengel Comwentar. 17. * Lyonnet Ibtd*

64 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

small the diameter of these vessels^, they are sure to re-
main constantly open, and pervious to the air. And by
this circumstiEuice. they may be always distinguished frcHR
the other organs of. the animal, and likewise by their
pearly or silv^y hue, for from being constaatly filled
with air, these tubes, when viewed under a powerful mi-
croscope in a recently dissected insect, present a most
beautiful and brilliant appearance, resembling a branch-
ing tree of highly polished silver or pearl : — though
sometimes they are blue, or of a lead colour, and some-
times assume a tiiit of gold. In the dead insect theiarger
tubes soon turn brown, but the finer ones preserve, thdir
lustre several weeks ^. The ramifications of the tracheal
tree may be seen without dissection through the trans-
parent skin of the common louse ^ and most of the thin-
skipned laryae.

You will not expect to view in this way the minuter
ramifications of the bronchice^ when I have mentioned
their number and incredible smallness. Nothing butlhe
scalpel of a Lyonnet and the most powerfiil leiises are
adequate lo trace ^e extremities of these vessels; and
even with every belfl, they at last become so incan'ceiTaf-
biy. slender as tQ;elude the most piercing si^t. That
ilhistrioiis anatomist f6und that the two irathea f£ the
larva of the Cobsus gave, birth to 236 broi^hial tubesy and
that these ramify intQ no less than 1336 smaller tubes,
to which, if 232, the number of the detached branchiae,
be added, the whole will amount to 1804? branches'".
Surprising as this number may appear, it is not greater

» Lyonnet 102. Malpigh. DeBombt^c. 12, Reaum. i. 130.
»> Swamra. Bibl. Nat. t. \uf, 7. *= Lyonnet 411,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF insects; 65

than we may readily conceive to be necessary for 'com-
municating with so many different parts. For, like the
arterial and venous trees, which convey and return the
blood to and from every part of the body in vertebriate
animals, the bronchia are not only carried along the in-
testines and spinal marrow, each ganglion of which they
penetrate and fill, but they are distributed also to the
skin and every organ of the body, entering and travers-
ing the legs and wings, the eyes, antennae, and palpi, and
accompanying the most minute nerves through their
whole course. How essential to the existence of the
animal must the element be that is thus anxiously con*
veyed by a thousand channels, so exquisitely formed, to
every minute part and portion of it! Upon considering
this wonderful apparatus we may well exclaim, This hath
God wrought. Of id this is the work of his hands.

Though in general there is only a^^a/r of tracheae^ yet
in some Urvse a larger number have been discovered.
In those of the Libelhdime there are six. According to
M. Cuvier, Reaumur, who mentions only four^ overlooked
the two lateral ones that are connected with the spira^
cles*. The reason of this and other parts of their in-»
temal structure I shall explain under the next head*
In the grub of the gad-flies of the horse {(Estri gastrin
cola eiark), Mr. B. Clark discovered eight longitudinal
trachea, — six arranged in a circle and tox) minute ones,
which appeared to him to terminate in a pair of exter-
nal nipf>Ies (spiracles) in the neck of the animaP. This

•

• N. Diet. d^Hitt. Nat, xvii. 641. Reaum. vi. 397. Plate XUll^
Fig. 8. shows three of them ait a.

*• Essay on the Bots, S^c. 23j t. If. 7, 32, &c.

vol.. IV. F

66 IHTERNAL ANATOMY OP INSECTS.

k a Mngnlar anomaly, as the other (E^rida have only
a pair of trachea ■.

JiLBespiraton/ Sacs or Pouches. Besides thar ftvwAe*
and bronchia, many insects are furnished with a kind of
reservoir fot the «r, under the form of sacs, pouches, or
vesicles. These are commonly formed by the bronchial
tubes being dilated at intervds, especially in the abdo-
men, into oblong inflated vesicles ; from which othta-
bronchial tubes diverge, and agwn at intervals expuid
into smaller vesicles, so as to raihibit ho um^t resem-
bhmce— as Swammerdam has observed with respect t»
those of the rhinoceros-beetle— to a spedmen of Fitaa
vesiculostis. Cuvier compares them in tha Lamdhcon*
beetles in general to a tree veiy thickly laden with leaves" t
and Chabrier obsttves that they particularly occur in the
intestinal canal'. This stracture of the pulmraiary or-
gans may be seen also m the common hive-bee, and other
Hymenoptera ,■ but the vesides are less numerous, and
those at the base of the abdomen much larger than the
rest''. These vesicles^ by a vay rough disseotioo, may
be distinctly seen m the rfjdemen of the cockrfwfer, wYaOk
appears to be ahaost filled wUh thran*. Not being oaet-
posed of cartilapnous rings like the air-tubes, bnt of
mere membrane, if a pin pierCes one, the air that inflates
it esc^es, Mid it collapses. In the larva of a Uttle gnat
( Corethra adicifcrmis) the trachea ^pear to proceed fi?om

• Etiag on the Bolt, *o. 49. VaJianieri i. 101. (. vi./. 4. &c.
*■ BUt. 2/at. i. 149. e. /. xxix. /. a. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 439.
Malpigh. De Bombyc. t. iii./ 2.

' SurU Voider Im. c. ii. 338. note I.

■" Swaraic. BOt. Wri. (- xvii./. 9. Curier Ibid. 440.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 67

apair of oblong vesicles of considerable size^ in^the trunk,
and towards the anus they form two other smaller ones^,
-^upon piercing the former, De Geer observed a consi-
derable quantity of air to make its escape^. Another sper .
cies, probably of the same genus, described by Reaumur,
exhibits something similar^.

But one of the most remarkable structures, in this re-
spect, is to be seen in the larva and pupa of the dragon-
dies {LibeUtdina)» I have before noticed the number of
their trachea^ but I shall here describe their whole in-
temal respiratory apparatus. I must observe that Reann
mur, Ciwier, and most modem writers on the physiolo^
gical department of Entomology, have affirmed that they
respire the water^ and that they receive it for that pur-
pose at their anal extremity: but M. Spretigel, from
itaving obseirved in fhe larvae abdominal spiracles, is Un-
unwilling to admit this as a fact<^; and De Geer also
seems to hesitate upon it, especially as he discovered that
tlie animal seemed to absorb the water to aid it in its
motions^* But when we consider that it is by the aetionT
of a pneumatk apparatus that the absorpticm and ex-
pulsion^ of the water takes place, aiid that the animal
when it has-been taken out of l£at eli^eht, upon being
restored to it, imtHediately has eager re<6ourse to this ac-
tibti^, we shall Sbel indtiied rather to i^opt the opinion
6f ^lose great physiolbgi^ Reaumur^- Lyomiet, and
Cuvier, and admit that it absorbs water for the purpose
6f respirati'oni I shall how estplain how this takes place*

» Plate XXIX. Fig. 10. a. " Ibid. b.

* De Greer vi. 374. ^ Reaum. v. 40. t, \\,f» 4, 7-

• Sprengel Comment, 4. ^ De Geer ii. 667, 675:

f Reaum. vi. 394-:-,

F 2

6$ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IN&ECTS.

The pieces both internal and external that close the anal
orifice have been before described ; the others employed
in ih.e admission and expulsion of the water are evidently
respiratory organs. When this orifice is opened^ the
parts that are above it are drawn back in an opposite di-
rection, so that the five last segments of the abdomen be-
come entirely empty, and form a chamber to receive the
water that enters by it When the water is to be ex-
pelled, the whole mass of air-vessels which had receded
towards the trunk, is pushed forwards, and forms a pis-
ton that again expels the water in a jet It consists of
an infinite number oibronchiaj entangled with each other,
which proceed from the middle and posterior end of the
trachedB. M. Cuvier in the interior of the rectum of
the larva discovered twelve longitudinal rows of little
black spots, in pairs, which exhibited the resemblance of
six pinnated leaves. These are minute conical tubes, of
the spiral structure of trachea^ which decompose the wa-
ter, and absorb the air contained in it. He also disco^
vered that each of these tubes gave birth to anotber out-
side the rectum^ which connected itself with one of the six
great longitudinal trachea ; two of which are of enorr
mous size, and appear to serve as reservoirs, since they
furnish air by transverse branches to two other tubes ;
they have each a recurrent brandij which follows the
course of the intestinal canal, and fiunishes it with an
infinity oi bronchia^. These trachea are found in the
perfect insect The principal ones in some send forth
many branches, terminating in vesicles, which in shape

» Reaum. vi. 394—. Cuv. Anat. Comp,iv, 440—. JV; Diet,
d'WsL h^at. xvii. 540—.

INT£ltNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.: 69^

resemble the seed-vessels of some species of Thlaspi^\
while others appear to form a file of oblong ones*.
Near each of their spiracles also is a vesicle which ap-
pears to be a reservoir ^

' Bat this kind of structure is not confined to insects
strictly aquatic* Even such species of terrestrial ones a&
live upon aquatic plants, and are, consequently, necessa-
rily or accidentally often a considerable time under wa-
ter, are furnished with some apparatus by means of
which diey can exist in this element for a considerable
period. For example, most of the Weevils {Curctdio L.)
die in a short time if immersed in water; yet the species
of the genera Tanysphyrus Germ. Bagous Germ., and
that to which C. pericarpius L. belongs, and which feed
on aquatic plants, can exist for days under water^ as I
have ascertained by experiment C. leucogaster Marsh,
and another of the same tribe, swims like a HydrophiluSf
and will live a long tim6 in a bottle filled with water and
corked tight Other insects also, that are not at all aquatic,
have pneumatic pouches. A striated or channeled ve-
sicle I have found under the lateral angles of the collar
in the humble-bee, where Chabrier supposes the vocal
spiracles are situate ; and also at the mouth of the spira-
cles of the metathorax in Vespa^ &c.*^ In Sphinx Li-
gustri the bronchice terminate in oblong vesiculoso-cel-
lular bodies, almost like lungs** ; in Smerinthus Tilia:
these are preceded by a simple vesicle bound with spiral
fibres^. M. Chabrier thinks that these air-bladders of

» Plate XXIX. Fig. 9. a, 5. Reaum. vi. 418— . 450.

*» Cuv. Anat Comp, iv. 441. '^ Vol. HI. p. 585.

** Sprengel Comment, 17, t, iii./. 24. * Ibid, L '\.J\\\,

70 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INS£CTS»

insects, amongst oth^r flinctions, give more fixity and
force to tlie muscles for flight'.

Many phjrsiologists have seen an analogy between the
spiral vessels of plants and the trachea of insects; and
some of great name, as Comparetti, Decandolle^ and
Kieser, have thought that in some instances they termi^
nated in the oscida or cortical pores : but Sprengd coa-*
tends that they are not accurate in this opinicm^. In
&ct, the principal analogy seems to be in the ^iral
structure of both these vessels*

«

Having considered the different organs o>f respiration
both external and internal, I shall make a few further
observations upon this function. We know litde more
respecting the mode in which insects respire^ except that
they breathe out the air by the same kind of organs by
which they receive it,— rnamely, the spiracles^ or their re-
presentatives. This has been satisfactorily proved by
Bonnet, who showed that the experiments by which
Reaumur thought it established that insects inspire by
their spiracles, but exspire through the mouth, anus, or
pores of the skin, are founded on an erroneous assump-
tion. This physiologist, having observed on the surface
of submerged insects numerous bubbles of aii*, concluded
that they had passed through the above orifices^: but
Bonnet found by various experiments carefully conduct-
ed, that this appearance was caused by air which ad-
hered to the skin and its hairs, and that when the access

* Sur le Vol det Ins. c. ii. 336. note 1.

*» Sprengel Comment, 13—. These oscula or pores in the straw
of Tritieum hifbemum, as figured bj Mr. Bauer's admirable pencil,
(Sur J. Banks On the BUgkt, ^c. t. ii./. 3.) exactly resemble the spi-
racles of insects. « Reaum. i. 130.

INTEBKAL ANATOMY OF IN8BGTS. ?1

of this was precluded by carefiiUy moistening the skin
widi water previously to immersion, this accumulation
of atP-bttbbles on its sur&ce did not take place ^« And
in a variety of instances he observed large ones issue
firom all the spiracles, especially the anterior ones. These
bubbles sometimes wer^ alternately emitted and absorbed
without quitting the spiracle^, and at others were darted
with force to the surface <^ the water, where they ap-
peared to burst with noise *^, This author is of opmion
that the Jirst and last pair of these organs are of most im«
portance to respiration^. Reaumur subsequently owned
that B(HM»et's arguments had shaken his (pinion ^; and
some observations of his own, with respect to the respi-
ration of the bot of the oj7, go to prove that expiration
and inspiration are not by Hiesajne spiracles ; for he found
that the air in this animul was expired by the eight little
lower orifices before mentioned^, from which he clearly
saw the air-bubbles issue— the upper one he conjectures
receives the air^. As the only comnranication that this
grub has with the atmosphere is by its posterior extre-
Hiity, it follows, reasoning from analogy, that the ante-
rior respiratory plates of Dipterous larvss, which may be
r^arded as repres^iting the spiracles of the trunk in in-
sects in genial, are destined for the escape of the air,
after it has parted with its oxygen, received by the anal
ones^ So that there seems very good ground for

* Bonnet CEuvr. ui. 39—. ^ Ibid. 43. ^ Ibid. 50.

d md, 69. • De Geer ii. 117.

f See above, p. 50. ■ Reainn. iv. 5^.

^ Mr. B. aiA- thinks that he has discovered spiracles in this
larva in the usual situation, {Euay on the BoU^ ^c, 48. /. ii./. 3.)
but they are probably analogous to the spiracuHform tubercles of
CE. Ovii. Reaum. iv. 566. /. xxxv. 17—- 10. t. Valiisnieri (Eaperienz.
Jjrc. 136) notices them.

72 INTERNAL ANATOiMT OF iKSiECtS.

M. Chabrier's opinion that inspiration is ordinarily by
the abdominal spiracles, and expiration by those of the
trunk of insects ^. He seems to have been led to the adop-
tion of this opitiion, not so much by experiments similar
to that of Reamnur just stated, but by observing that in
many instances these, two sets of spiracles differ from ea^h
other, the latter having a convex and the former a con^
cave mouth or bed**. In some cases, however, — for in-
stance duringflight,— he supposes the spiracles of the trunk
may receive as well as emit the air ^ : he likewise is of opi-
nion, and it seems not improbable, that by me^ns of these
openings in the trunk, from the rifsh of the superfluous
air through them, insects produce those sounds for which
they are remarkable, — as the humming of bees and flies.
In the former he thinks the sound is produced by the
pneumatic apparatus covered by the ends of the collars
while in the latter he attributes it to the spiracles in the
metathorax behind the wings attended by a poiser^. I
incline, however, to M.Dufour's opinion % — that the vocal
spiracles in the Hymenopteray as well as in the Dipteral
are those behind the wings. Perhaps both theories may
be right; for if you take any common humble-bee, you
will And that, in the hand, it produces one kind of sound
when its wings are motionless, and another more com-
plex and intense when they vibrate* In numerous in-
stances, however, there is no very striking external dit
ference between the spiracles of the trunk and those of
the ahdomen : this observation applies more particularly
to the caterpillars of Lepidoptera ; but whether these re-
ceive the air by those of die abdomen, and return it by

^ Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 423.

^ Ibid. 454. and c. iv. 66. note I. "^ Ihid. c. i. 453.

- Ibid. 459, 456. ^ Ibid. 459.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 7S

those of the trunk, has not yet been ascertained; and
indeed, too little is at present known upon the subject,
and too few &cts have been collected, to admit of dog-
madzmg.

The external signs of respiration in insects are not uni--
versally to be discovered. The alternate contraction and
expansion of the abdomen is, however, very visible, in
some beetles, bees, the larger dragon*fiies, and grass-
hoppers. In one of the latter, Acrida viridissima K.,
Vauquelin observed that the inspirations were from fifty to
fifiy«-five times in a minute in atmospheric air, and from
sixly to sixty-five when in oxygen gas *. But M. Chabrier
has> given the most satis&ctory account of these signs :
The abdomen, says he, is the principal organ of inspi-
ration ; it can dilate and contract, lengthen and shorten,
elevate and depress itself. In flight, in elevating its ex-
tr^ooily at the same time with the wings, it contracits it-
self pushes the air into the trunk, and diminishes the
weight of the body by the centrifugal ascending force ^.
Id the ma^iity of insects perhaps the dilatation of the
abdomen takes place by the recession of the segments
from each other by means of the elastic ligaments that
connect them ; in others, as ih&Djfnastid^e^ Solpuga^ &c»
by the longitudinal folded membrane that unites the dor-
sal and ventral segments— in the LibeUidime by similai*
venial folds; iand mCimbex by membranous pieces in
the first dorsal s^ment, which. De Geer observed was
elevated and depressed at the will of the animal ^« .
Air is as essaatial to insects in their pupa as in their

* AfMol, de Ckim, xii.

^ Sur le Vol des Im. c. i. 423, 4d4. c. iii. 344. c. iv. 66.

« De Geer ii. 946—.

7t IHTSRKAL ANATOUY OF IH8ECTS.

larva or pafeet states. •■'Lyaaaei, bowerer, Musschen-
broeki Martbet, uid some other pbysiolt^ts, Lave
doubted whetber ^itxceat pnpK broathed ■ ; but Reau-
mur and De Oeer seem to have proved that tbey do^ i
and M" tbromn into wate^; ihe same proof of rsq>iration,
by the ewwion and rBtractioii.i^ a bubble of air takes
[^ace, as in tbe larvn; and De Geo- found tbat if one
be trau^rred upder wfUer &om mie spiracle to uK^hsr,
it Till be absorbed by it^. Indeed, unless these papee
had breathed) vbere would have been the necessity Sat
the piracies ^th vhidj all are iumished? It is remark-
ably however, that all Ihew sfHracles do not seem of
equal iiii|)CHtaoce in this respect. Beanmur found tbat
if the posterior spiracles only were doaed with oil, the
insect Bu£^red no iiyuiy ; but that jf the anterior ones
were similarly treated, it in&Uibly died'*. The ro^irm-
ti^n bpwfiver of pupse seems more perfect in those that
hare rec^pdy assumed that stot^ than in those that aie
more advanced towards tbe imago ; in which at first, from
If^immr's experimfots^ it aiq»ara that the posterior
piracies were stopped ; and in olbera still older, from
Mosscbenbroek's ', ereo the anterior ones. Those qnie».
cent pupw that during that sta^ remain fubmergedt re-
spire air- Be Geer has given an interesting record of
ibis, in the case of Bo^ ttratiolans. This insect spins
a double cocoon, the outer one thin, and the inner one
of a dose texture. In the pupa there ore three pair of
ctmspicuous tfurades on the second, third, and iburdi
segments of the abdcHuen, which are placed cHt cylindri-

' Lesser, L. i. 124. uote *. Ljomiet ..Jiiatom. pref. xu. DeGeerii.

H. " Resum. i. 389—. Do Oeeri. 37—.

■ Ibid. 40. ■■ Reaum. i. 400. ■ /AW. ' De Geer ii. 129.

IHTBRNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 70

eal tubesy and they appear to have no other air-vessdis.
Hie jrespiiiUory gills of the larva having vanished, like
soQie others of the same genus, they know how to snr*
round themselves widi an atmosphere of air in the midst
of the water, so that the interior. of their inner coeoon is
imparviotts to the latter element-«-rhow lihey renew the
air has not been ascertained. Though they respire air,
water is eqwdly necessary, for the animal died when kept
outofwatar^.

The great majority of insects respire in much the same
manner in aH their states, particularly as to their ej^/ernoi
organsi for when the larva breathes by the lateral spira-
des, the pupa and imago usuaUy do the same. The con*
verse of this, faoweveiv by no mefms holds ; for it not un*
fireqnently happ^is Aat the two latter breathe by means
of lateral spiracles, though lliey received the air in their
larva state by an apparatus altogether different. Tlius
die iarvffi of many Dipiera breathe by an anal tube, while
the pupa and imago fijillow the general system. Some^
times ^ tdbe of insects bseathe by an apparatus quite
difl^sDent in' all their 8tates,i» we have seen to be the case
with the oommifin gniit'*, which has an anal res{Mratory
tube iait^ first state, thorifeic reiqnratory horns in its se^
cond^vtidi die ordinary lateral grades in its third.

Oiange&ilso take place in their internal organs. In
the larvae the respiratory ajqiaratus, especially the tra^
cheal tubes, is often much larger and more ramified than
in the imago ; and ast the former is the prindpnl/eeding
state, there seems good ground for Mr. B. Clark's opi-

* De Geer i. 531—. ^. zxxviL/. 13. s. Compare Reaum. ii. 386—.
** See above, p. 51— •

76 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nion — that the respiration is intimately connected with
the conversion of the food'* In the imago, there ap-
pears to be more provision for storing up the air in vesi-
cular reservoirs, than in the larvcu /Wonderful is the
mode in which some of the changes in the internal struc-
ture,, which these variations indicate, must necessarily
take place. They are, however, probably not more sin-
gular than those which less obviously occur in the air-
vessels of all insects in their great change out of the larva
into. the piipa state. But having before enlarged on this
subject, I' need not repeat my observations^.

The access of air is as necessary to insects even m
their egg state ^, and in many cases its presence seems
provided for with equal care, by means as beautiful as
those Messrs. Home and Davy have shown to occur in
the oxygenation of the eggs and foetuses of vertebrate
animals^. It is only necessary to view the admirable
net-work of air-vessels which Swammerdam discovered
spread over the surface of the eggs of the.hive-bee whil^
in the ovaries % — ^a provision which, from analogy, we
may conclude obtains generally ; from the importance
which nature has attached to the oxygenation of the germ
while in ;the matrix. And juicing from anialogy, we may
infer that the access of this element is as carefully secured
after the egg is laid, as before. The eggs of most insects
being of a porous texture, often attached to the leaves of

* In Lmn.Tr0ns. Ill 30^. »• Vol.111, p. 196—.

*' Spallanzani found that the eggs of insects placed under the ex-
hausted receiver of an air-pump, or in any small closed vessels, did
not hatch, though every other condition for their developement wasi
present. Opusc, dePhysJ 1 141. «« PhUos. Trans. 1820. 213.

« BiU. Nat. i. 204. b. t. xix.f. 5.

INTERNAL ANATOMY QF INSECTS. 77

plants, and some of them embedded in the very substance
of a leaf or twig^, are in a situation for the abundant
absorption of oxygen: and the pouch of silk in which
the eggs of spiders and Hydrophili are deposited, may
probably, from Count Rumford's experiments, be of uti-
lity in the same point of view. In the case of the 7W-
chapter a and other insects^ whose eggs are dropped into
the water enveloped in a mass of jelly, this substance per-
haps serves for aerating the induded embryo, in the same
way with the jelly surrounding the eggs of the frog, dog«
fish, &c« It would be desirable to ascertain whether the
former jelly be of the same nature as the experiments of
Mr. Brande have shown the latter to be ^. It is not im-
probable that the singular rays that terminate the q;gs
oiNepa^ may in some way be connected with the aera««
tion of the egg.

To what I have before remarked with regard to the
xnkd heat of insects % I may under this head very pro-
perly add a few further observations. I there stated, that
the temperature of these animals is usually that of the me-
dium they inhabit, but that bees, and perhaps oth^r gre-
garious ones, fiurnisb an exception to this rule ^ A con-
firmation of this remark is afforded by Inch, a German
writer, who, upon putting a thermometer into a bee-hive
in winter, fopnd it stand 27^ higher than in the open air;
in an anthill, he found it 6^ or 7^ higher ; in a vessel
containing many blister-beetles, {Caniharis vesicataria
Latr.) 4^ or 5® higher. A thermometer, standing in the
air at 14^ R., put into a glass vessel with Acrida vitidis^

» Vol. I. p. 449—. IIF. p. 76. ^ IMd. 68—.

e PhUos. Trans. 1820. 218. ^ Vol. III. p. W.

« Vol. II. p. 220—. ^ Ilnd. p. 214.

?8 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSBCTS*

sima^ in nine minutes rose to 17% and a similar re^lt
was observed with respect ta other insects*. Dr. Mar-
tine says that caterpillars have but two degrees of heat
above that of the air they live in ^, Cote<^iterdus insects
are said to move dlowly md with difficulty when the
thermometer sinks to 36% to become torpid at S4% and
to lose muscular irritidnlity at a. lower d^ree^^ I have
befinre observed that some insects wiU bear t(> be ftoixs&
into an icicle, and yet survive^ : they share this power
yf^ reptiles^ fishes, and amphibia. But, however small:
the excess of it in some insects above that of the medium-
they inhabit^ it proves thatthey possess the power of gene-
rating heat Whethlsr, like the warm-blooded animals,
they generally possess that of residing heat by perspira-
tion, &C. is not so dear. Yet the heat to which some
can bear to be exposed, basking at noon, as I>p. Clai*ke
iolbrms ur% on rodcy abd sandy places, exposed to the
fill! action of die sun, appears suffieiexil, if not resisted
by some principle of counteraction, to roaiit them to a
cinder. That bees persnpuf^; i» well knowu, but probably

When die respiration Of insects iJ» suspe«d<^ \^ ittii«^
mersion in any fluid, it is often resumed^ «ven when it
has beeil ks^ and l^ey^ are apparently dead, if they be
brought into dontact widi the atmosphiar^. ReaiiniUI*
found this to be the case with bees ^ ; and Swamnaetdam^
tdls us that die maggot of the cheese-fly {Tyr&p%itgaCdim
K.) lived six or seven days in rain-water^ : he found it

* Inchy c. iv. Ideen zu Einer Zoocheniie, 68-—.

• »» On Themum. 141. « Carlide in PkSos, TfaHs. 1805. 25.

* Vot, 11. p. 231. * Traneh ii, 48^.

' Reaum. v. 540. ' Swamm. JBi6l» Nat. ii. 65; a.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS* 79

r

SO difficult to kill the larva of Siratyamis Charmdeon^
which he first immersed twenty-four hours in spirits of
wine^ and then put them several days in water, without
killing them, — ^that he lost his patience, and dissected
them alive. He tried to drown them also in vinegar, in
which they held out more than two days^.

That the suspended animation and subsequent death
of ttiost terrestrial insects when thrown into water is
caused by the want of aitj is evident from this, — ^that the
same dOTect ensues if the spiracles be covered with any
oily or fittty matter. In this ease too, their vital powers
soon become suspended : they revive^ if the suffocat-
ing m^itt^ be soon removed ; and if du^ be not done, in-
fidlibly perish* This fact was known to the ancients^
for Pliny observes that bees die if dipped in oil or ho-
ney **• On^ exertion to this law has been be£:»re mm^
tioned^ t a siifiilar cimtrivauce secafes the cheeseifaaggot
firotti having its respilrati^n tmentipled by its moist and
greasyfiodd; the grab also of Mwa«iyrnarta,aad of other
JlAismte pcobably, has its posterior qdr^es placed in sr
j^te at the bottom of a kind <tf fleshy poudi', miiieh hoa
like shape of a hdkmv tnuicaited, and reversied cme.
This poueb the. gfub can dose* whenever it pletfses^ stt
as to oov«r its spivades^. And numerdus oth^ iarva^
both of i){>tef^aiidCt»toip^^m thftt devour laid^daH and
oUy fiyod, have doiibdess some proceietioii dT dki^ kind ftr
tbeir spiraclies and r^iratory plata&

• Swamm. BUd. Nat. ii. 48. a. ^ Hut. Nat^ I. xi. c. 19.

" Swamm. Bibl, Nai.iL 641 a.

^ Reaum. iv. 4^8. t. xxix./. 2. c> $,

LETTER XXXIX.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

CIRCULATION.

We learn from the highest authority^ that the blood is
the life of the ammal^ : every object of creation, there-
lore, that is gifted with animal life, we may conclude, in
some sense, has blood, which in this large sense may be
defined — Thejkdd that visits and nourishes every, part of
a living body^. But the Great Author of nature hs^
varied the Tnachinery by which this nutritive fluid is
formed and distributed, gradually proceeding firom the
most simple to the most complex structure ; in which he
seems to have seen it fit to invert the process observable in
the systems of sensation and respiration, where the ascent
is itovcL the most complex, to the most simple structure..
In the lowest members of the animal citation, the blood
seems the portion they imbibe of the fluid medium in which
they reside, which when chylified, distributes new mole^
cules to all parts of their frame <^. In others, as in insects,
it is formed by the chyle that transpires through the intes-

F Genet, ix. 4. »• N, met. tTHist Kat. xxx. 130.

* Cuv, Anat, Cofiip, iv. 167.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. S^l

tinal canal into the general cavity of the body, where it
receives oxygen from the air-vessels, and is fitted for
nutrition ^. In these animals it is accompanied by a long
dorsal vessel, the first step towards a hearty which alter-
nately contracts and dilates with an irregular systole and
diastole, but appears to have no vascular system con-
nected with it. Again : in others, as the Tubicoles^ An^
nelida^ &c., a real circulation has been discovered; that
is to say, a system of veins and arteries, but unaccom-
panied by a muscular heart ^. In the Arachnida and
Branchiopod- Crustacea the long dorsal vessel is also
found ; but in these it is connected with an arterial and
venous system, which receives, distributes, and returns
the blood <^. It has therefore now become a true heart,
and there is a regular circulation ; and in the Decapod
Crustacea the dorsal vessel is contracted into an oval
form, and placed nearly in the centre of this trunk**. In
the great majority of invertebrate animals the blood is
"white, but in the Annelida, to which Class the common
dew-worm belongs, a curious anomaly takes place— *for
it is red^. Thus a gradual ascent is made to the circu-
lating system of the vertebrate and red-blooded animals.
In ail, however, the blood is the principal instrument of
nutrition an3 accretion ; and is on that account properly
so denominated, though not connected with a circulating
system.

Having given you this general outline of the means by
which the blood is distributed in the different Classes of
animals, I shall now confine myself to the case of insects

• Herold Schmetterl, 25. note *. Vol. III. p. 53.

«» N. Diet. (PHitt. Nat, vii. 313. Cuv. Anat. Conip. iv. 411.

«= Ibid. 419, 407. •* Itnd. * Ibid. 410.

VOL. IV. G

82 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

inul Aracknida, beginning with ikejbrmer. As their nu-
tritive fluid and their dorsal vessel have not been disco*
vered to be connected, I shall consider them separately :
but I must first observe, — that the term Circutation^ with
which this letter is headed, though not strictly applicable
to insects^ is perfectly proper when used with respect to
Arachnida; you will not therefore stumble at the thresh*
old, and object to my employing it*

L If you examine attentively the back of any smooth
caterpillar with a transparent skin, you will perceive in
that part an evident pulsation, as though a fluid were
pushed at regular intervals towards the head, along a
narrow tube which seems to run the whole length of the
body. Accurate dissections have proved that this ap*
pearance is real, that there is actually present in the
back of most insects, placed immediately under the skin
and furnished with numerous aur-vessek, a longitudinal
vessel^ originating in the head near the mouth ^, running
parallel with the alimentary canal nearly to the anus,
'containing a fluid which is propelled in regular pulsa*
tions of from 20 to 100 p^r minute^ more or less as the
weather is colder or warmer^, causing a sensible alter*
nate systole and diastole from the anal extremity to-
wards the head. In the Cossus these pulles were ob*
served by Lyonnet to be^n in the eleventh segment, from
which they passed from segment to segment, till they
arrived at thefourthy where they terminated"^. This ves-
sel is what Malpighi, who first discovered it, termed a
hearty or rather series of hearts * ; but which Reaumur,

•

^ Plate XXII. Fig. 15. «» Lyonnet AruU. 105. *= Ibid. 426.
*• Ibid, 105—. " BeBwnbyc. 15—,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 83

who injected it, regarded as a simple artery witho,ut strik-
ing contractions^ : but to steer clear of any hypothesis,
I shall merely call it the dorsal vessel {Pseudocardia).
When carefully taken out of the body it is found to be
a membranous tube closed at each end^, in many larvaB
of equal diameter every where, but in perfect insects
usually widest at the anal extremity ^, and attenuated into
a very slender filament towards the head. In some in-
sects, however, as in the larva of the chamaBleon-fly
{Stratyomis Chamale(m\ it is attenuated at both ends, and
in the Ephemera is alternately constricted and dilated as
Malpighi describes that of the silk-worm^, a dilated por-
ticHi belonging to each segment^. In the Cossusj and
probably others, after the third s^ment, it is furnished
with nine pair, the three posterior pair being the largest,
of triangular trans vei'se bundles of muscular fibres, which
Lyonnet denominates its wings ^, the action of which pro-
duces its systole and diastole, and their propagation from
tlie Ual towards the head ^. Under the last pair of these
wings it is strengthened by a large number of circular
muscular fibres^. I have stated it, with most writers,
to be closed attach extremity; but from Lyonnef s words
it should seem that, in the Cossusj he considered it as
open and expanded at its anterior end^ He seems also
to* suspect, that, by means of what he calls the fi*ontal
ganglions, a fluid is derived from the dorsal vessel to the

■ Reaum. i. 160—. ^ Cuy. Anat. Cornp* iv. 418.

c Mai'cel de Serres Menu du Mm, 1819. 69.

** Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t, xl./. 4. t. xv.f, 4.

« Be B<md>yc, t in./. 4. ^ UU stipr. 414. ^ Ibid, 425 —

*> Ilfid, 419. » I6uL 412.

o 2

S4 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

spinal marrow. He likewise describes a large nerve as
passing through it and becoming recurrent'.

The^uid which this vessel contains is very abundant ;
in the animal it appears colourless and transparent like
water, but when collected in drops it becomes more or
less yellow, and even orange**. Examined under the
microscope it appears filled with a prodigious number of
transparent globules, of incredible minuteness ^. When
mixed with water, which it does readily, its globules lose
all their transparency, and coagulate into small clammy,
masses. After evaporation it becomes hard, and cracks
like gum, as blood does also. This gummy substance is
so abundant, that the fluid contained in the dorsal vessel
of the caterpillar of the Cossus yields a mass of it of the
size of a grey pea**.

From the situation of this dorsal vessel, which is pre-
cisely the same with that of the heart in Arachnida and
the Branchiopod Crustacea^ and from the systole and
diastole which keep its fluid contents in constant motion,
who can wonder that the physiologists who first disco-
vered it, maintained that it was a true heart ? And even
now, our knowledge of this organ is so very circumscribed
that, till insects have been more widely examined with
this view, and its real functions are ascertained, it seems
to savour of temerity to assert, that in no respect.it can
answer the purpose of a heart. Before I advert to those
arguments that at present may be regarded as proving
that it is not a heart, I will notice those upon which the
upholders of the original opinion have founded their

* Lyonnet Annt. 413. •» Ibid. 426. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 419.

"^ Lyonnet says (4^6), ** au-dela de trois millions de fois plus petits
qii*un grain de sable " ! ! ** Ibid.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. S&

jddgemenL No one will deny that the argument from
analogy is strongly in favour of the old theory : I shall
not therefore dwell upon it, but proceed to others. Swam-
merdam, to whose exactness in observing, and scrupulous
accuracy, every reader of his immortal work will bear
.testimony, expressly asserts that he has seen vessels is-
suing from the dorsal vessel in the silk-worm, and even
succeeded in injecting them with a coloured fluid ^. Now
it seems extremely improbable that so practised and ex-
pert an anatomist should have been deceived, especially
upon a point which would naturally excite his most earn-
est and undivided attention. Without this recorded ex-
periment, perhaps, it might be thought, though this was
very unlikely, that he had mistaken bronchia for veins
and arteries : but how could they have been injected from
die supposed heart? Another great physiologist, Reau-
mur, in the cate^illar of the saw-fly of the rose {Hi/lo*
toma Mosie, Lat.) observed, besides the dorsal vessel, a
ventral one of similar form, in which also was a pulsa-
tion, but slower than that of the other. This he sup-
poses may be the principal trunk of the veins''. Bonnet
thought he discovered a similar vessel in a large cater-
pillar, but with all his attention could perceive no mo-
tion in it^. Reaumur also, thought he perceived in the

* His words are— '* In silk-worms I have clearly seen various small
vessels spring from and approaching to the heart, which I have even
filled with a coloured liquid. But whether they were veins or ar-
teries I cannot yet affirm ." i. 112. a. 176. a. According to Cuvier
(Anat, Comp, iv. 418), but I cannot find the passage, Swaramerdam
alsomentions having seen a red fluid issue from small vessels in grass-
hoppers. ^ ^ Reaum. v. 103.

<: Bonnet ii. 309. Perhaps in both cases the alimentary canal was
the organ seen.

86 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

grub of Mtisca vomitaria^ in which he in vain looked for
the dorsal vessel, a fleshy part which exhibited alternate
pulsations ; and when with a pair of scissors he made a
lateral incision in the insect, amongst other parts that
came out, there was one that had movements of contrao-
'* tion and dilatation for several minutes, — this experiment

was repeated with the same result upon several grubs*.
De Geer, whose love of truth and accuracy no one will
call in question, saw the appearance of blood-vessels in
the leg of the larva of a Phryganea L. (as Lyonnet did in
those of a flea**) ; and in the transparent thigh of Orni-^
thomia avicularia he discovered a pulse like that of an
artery*^. Baker, whose only object was to record what
he sww^ speaks of the current of the blood being remark-
ably visible in the legs of some small bugs^ : what he
meant by that term is uncertain, but they could not be
spiders^ which he had just distinguished. This author
has likewise seen a green fluid passing through the ves-^
sels of the wings of grass-hoppers ^ ; and M. Chabrier is
of opinion that insects possess the power of propelling a
fluid into the nervures of their wings and withdrawing it
at pleasure, as they are elevated or depressed ^ : but these
two last ikcts must be accounted for on other principleS|
as there is clearly no circulation.

But though these arguments, which I have stated in
their full force, appear strong, and at first sight conclu-
sive, those which may be urged for the more modem opi-
nion— that no circulation exists in insects, properly so
called, — appear to me to have by far the greatest weight.

* Reaum. iv. 171 — . ^ Ijesser L. ii. 84. note.

** De Gcer ii. 606-. vi. 287. '^ On the Microtcope. i. 130.

« l6id. f Sur le Vol det Ins. 326—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 87

Lyonnet, whose piercing eye and skilful hand traced the
course of so many hundred nerves and bronchtie long
after they became invisible to the unassisted eye,* and
which were a thousand times smaller than the princi-
pal blood-vessels, opening into so large an organ as
the supposed heart of insects, might be expected to be,
could never discover any thing like them. His most
painful researches, and repeated attempts to inject them
with coloured liquors, were unable to detect the most
minute opening in the dorsal vessel, or the slightest
trace of any artery or vein proceeding from or commu-
nicating with it^. And Cuvier, whose imrivalled skill
in Comparative Anatomy peculiarly qualified him for
the investigation, repeated these inquiries, and tried all
the known modes of injection, with equal want of success ;
and is thus led to the conclusion, that insects have no
circulation, that their dorsal vessel is no heart, and there-
fore ought not to be called by that name : that it is ra-
ther a secretory vessel, like many others of that kind in
those animals. As to the nature of the fluid that it se-
cretes, and its use, he thinks it impossible, from our present
information on the subject, to form any satisfactory cgn-^
elusion^. Marcel de Serres informs us — ^which further
proves that it can be no real heart — that this vessel may
be. totally removed without causing the immediate death
of the insect^. This opinion receives further confirma^
tion from the mode in which respiration is performed in
insects. In those animals that have a circulation, this
takes place by means o£ lungs or gills ; — thus we find, even

* Lyonnet Anai, 427 — • ^ Cuv. AnaL Comp, iv. 418-

^^ Mem. du Mut. 1819. 71.

88 INTERNAL i&NATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Crusiaeea and Arachnida so nearly related to in-
sects, that the organs of this function are true gills ^
whereas in insects, though in some of their states their
respiratory tubes are branchiform, yet they are not jgills,
and the respiration is by tubes and spiracles. And these
tubes, as you have seen, are so numerous and so infinitely
ramified and dispersed, as to occupy the place of arteries
and veins, and to imitate their distribution,— and thus to
oxygenate what may be deemed the real analogue of the
blood, which bathes every internal part of the body of an
insect. Those animals likewise that have a circulation
$.re furnished with a livery as is the case with the Amchr-
nida and even many aggregate animals that have a heart ;
but in insects there are only hepatic ducts. M. Cuvicr
has also proved that the conglomerate glands^ which ex-
ist in all animals that have a heart and blood-vessels, do
not exist in insects, in which they are replaced by long
slender secretory tubes, which without being united floait
in the interior of the body : from this circumstance, he
is led to conclude that their nutrition is by imbibition or
immediate absorption, as in the Polypi and other zoo-
{^ytes, the chyle transpiring through the alimentary ca-
nal, and running uniformly to all parts of the body^.

But although it be granted that no circulation of the
blood takes place in insects, yet, reasoning firom analogy,
the dorsal vessel should in some degree and in some re-
spects represent the heart, and its pulsations be in some
measure for a similar purpose ; but what that purpose is,
has not yet been ascertained : and on the whole, in the
present state of our knowledge, it seems the most prudent

* N, Dici, d'Hist. XaL xvi. 208.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 89

course to leave this matter for the investigation of future
physiologists*.

* Since writing the above, I have been favoured with a sight of
Marcel de Serres' Observations on the Dorsal Vessel of Insects ^, in
which his object is to prove that the principal use of that vessel is
the more perfect animalization of the chyle that, transuding through
the pores of the intestinal canal, is imbibed by it. In insects, he ob-
serves, that undergo metamorphoses, in which the growth or develop-
ment of parts is often very rapid, it is requisite that a considerable
portion of the chyle should be in reserve for this purpose. On this
account it is that the Epiploon or adipose tissue is so abundant in
larvae to what it is in the perfect insect. That the importance also of
this part to insects is proved by the circumstance, that all their in-
terior parts communicate by fibrils with this tissue, and that proba-
bly their various organs derive the nutriment from it by their means.
He then asks by which of the viscera is the fat elaborated. Or by what
means does tiie chyle which transudes from the intestinal canal pass
to the state of fat? Facts seem to indicate, says he, that the func-
tion of the dorsal yessel is to pump up the chyle, and to cause it
then to transude through the meshes of the adipose tissue, where it
finishes by elaborating that mass of fat so abundant in larvas and
certain perfect insects, which are thus enabled to sustain the effbcts
of a long fast. So that this vessel is only a secretory organ, analo*
gous to so many others that exist in insects ; but the secretion which
it has to produce is the most important of all, since the support of
the vital powers depends upon it : it is, in effect, that vessel which
completes the function of animalization, and which itself prepares the
nutritive fluid*. He observes, amongst other reasons he brings to
support his theory, that the colour of the fluid which it contains is
always analogous to that of the adipose tissue that surrounds it, and
that the colour of that tissue never changes without that of the fluid
undergoing a corresponding alteration, — that when, as in many per-
fect insects, the quantity of fat diminishes, the dorsal vessel also di-
minishes in size, and that the same reagents which coagulate the fat,
coagulate equally the fluid in the dorsal vessel, which seems to indi-
cate an identity between them^.

The only circumstance that strikes me as militating against this
hypothesis, is the analysis which Lyonnet has given of the fluid con-
tuned in the dorsal vessel of the Cossus^, which seems to prove that

» Mein. du Mm. 1819. ^ /^. 68-^.

3 Ibid, 69~. * See above, p. 84,

90 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

. Whatever be the functions of the dorsal vessel, this
seems the most proper place to state to you what further
is known respecting it* Its construction is nearly alike
in insects in all their states, except that ki the imago it
is shorter and narrower. Reaumur has affirmed, and
before him Malpighi made a similar observation, that in
chrysalises newly disclosed from the larva, and yet trans-
parent, the motion of the included fluid is the reverse of
what it has been in that state, it being propelled from
the head to the tail, which he found to be tl\p case also
in the imago ^. If this be true, and there is no reason to
doubt his accuracy, when they are more advanced, it re-
sumes its old course, as Lyonnet observed, from the tail
to the head^. But probably it is not always uniformly
in the same direction, since Malpighi states that a very
slight cause will change its course, and that the pulsa-
tions differ in quickness in difierent portions of the heart^.
If its course were really always the same, and in one di-

it is more analogous to gum or varnish. He saw indeed a few
globules, which appeared ten times as big as the others, which swam
upon the water, but which he did not regard as component parts of
the fluid, but as little drops of grease extravasated by dissection. The
fluid of the vessel itself easily mixed with water, and appeared to sink
in it to the bottom ^ These circumstances seem to indicate that it
is not of a fatty or olea^nous nature. Further experiments however
seem necessary to ascertain the nature of the fluid and its object :
but I think it is a fair and reasonable conjecture, that as the vessel
in question is in many respects analogous to the real heart in Arack-
mda and some Crtutacea, it so far performs the functions of a heart
as to produce an important effect in the nutrition of the animal. A
more satis&ctory elucidation of the uses of this vessel may be ex-
pected from the able pen of Mr. W. S. MacLeay.

1 Lyonnet Anat* 426—.

^ Reaum. i. 409, 64a—. Malpigh. De Bombyc, 38.
^ Lesser L. ii. 87 note *. * Uin supra.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 91

recticn, without any reflux, it would seem to follow that
the fluid must be absorbed at one end, and, if there was
no outlet, transpire at the other, which would be a kind
of circulation. In Syrphm Pyrastri and other aphidi-
vorous flies, this dorsal vessel, instead of the usual form
which it had in the larva, assumes a very peculiar ap-
pearance. If, taking one of these flies by the head and
wings and holding it up to the light, you survey under a
lens the base of the lower part of its abdomen, you will
see through its transparent skin, which exactly forms
such a window as physicians have sometimes wished for
in order to view the interior of their patients, a flask-
shaped vessel having its long end directed towards the
trunk, in which there is a manifest pulsation and trans-
mission of some fluid. This vessel extends in length
from the junction of the trunk with the abdomen to
about the termination of the second segment The in-
cluded fluid does not run in the dorsal vessel in a regu-
lar course, but is propelled at intervals by drops, as if
fn»n a sjnringe, first from the wide end towards the trunk,
and then in the contrary direction, forming a very in-
teresting and agreeable spectacle. One circumstance led
Reaumur to conjecture that the neck of this vessel, which
he at first regarded as simple, is in fact composed of two
or more approximated tubes, and that the blood is con-
veyed forward by the outward ones, and backward by the
intermediate one^ : he even thinks that he saw a kind
of secondary heart, at the extremity next the trunk, for
the purpose of causing the reflux. This illustrious au-
thor observed the above remarkable structure not only

■ Reaumur iv, 264.

<

92 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Syrphi, but in many of their afSnities, and thinks
that it is also widely diffused amongst the Muscida^.

I must now say something upon what I conceive to be
the real blood of insects ; for I think no one will object
to that name being given to their nutritive fluid, though
it does not circulate by means of a vascular system. The
chyle that is produced in the intestines of animals from
the food, is that fluid substance from which their blood
is formed : in insects it is not absorbed by the lacteals,
but transpires through the pores of the intestinal canal
into the general cavity of the body, where, being exposed
to the influence of the oxygen in the air-vessels, it becomes,
though retaining its colour, a different fluid from what
it was before, and analogous to blood in its use andofiice^ ;
only that in these animals, as Cuvier has ol^served, the
blood, for want of a circulating system, not being able
to seek the air, the air goes to seek the blood ^. The
dispersion of this fluid appears to be universal, so that
all the parts and organs contain it in a greater or less
degree **. In many insects, if you break only an antenna
or a leg, a drop of fluid flows out at the wound. In larvae,
the fluid which bathes all the internal parts and organs
is not only sufficient for their nutriment, but a large

» Reaumur iv. 260—. »» Herold SchmetterL 24.

' Anat Comp. iv. 165. <* Marcel de Serres (p. 67).

speaks of this fluid as being, after it has transuded through the in-
testinal canal, a fluid in repose, which seems to indicate that it b per*
fectly stagnant ; but when we consider that it is not only incessantly
entering the body and making its way to every part, but is also, by
means of the various secretory organs, constantly converted into new
products, and so going out again in many cases, it will appear evi-
dent that it cannot be considered as a stagnant fluid, since there must
be a constant though probably slow motion towards the points of
absorption or imbibition.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSERTS. 95

quantity of seemingly superfluous blood remains that is
not wanted for this purpose. This is expended in the
production of th^ caul or epiploon {Carps graisseux
Reaum.), which laps over and defends all the viscera of
the animal, and goes principally to the formation of the
imago*. I have said that Cuvier conceives nutrition in
insects to take place by imbibition or immediate absorp-
tion ; that is, I suppose, the different parts and organs
thus constantly bathed in the blood, imbibe from it the
particles necessary for their consjtant accretion. M. Cha-
brier seems to think that it is the compression and dila-
tation of the trunk that duly distributes the nutritive
fluid**; Lyonnet compares the nutrition of insects by
their fibres from this fluid, when formed into the corps
graisseux^ to that of plants that draw their support by
their roots from the earth *^. Much obscurity, however,
at present rests upon this subject — much for future inves-
tigation to explore ; but in all the works of the Most
High there is always something inscrutable, something
beyond the reach of our senses and faculties, which
teaches us humbly to adore his infinite perfections.

II. The circulation of the Arachnida is next to be
considered; and the term applied to these becomes
strictly proper. Two great tribes, in our view of the
subject, constitute this Class,— the spiders {Araneidai)
and scorpions {Scorpionidai) : I shall give you some ac-
count of the circulating vessels of each. — In spiders^ the
heart in general is a long dorsal vessel as in insects, but
supposed to be confined to the abdomen^ growing slen-

r

* Cuv. AttffL Comp. iv, 158. Herold SchmeitcrL 28.

*» Siu' le Vol dei Lis, c. iv. 88. note 1. '^ AnaL 4"28.

94f INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IN6£CTS.

derer towards each extremity, particularly the anal. In
some also, as in Aranea domestical like that of insects, it
has lateral muscular appendages ; but in others, as in
Clubiana atrox^ it is without tliem ^. It exhibits a pair of
vesseb that appear to connect with the gills, by which
the oxygenation of the blood takes place, and a number
of others that ramify minutely and are lost in the ana-
Xogne of the epiploon, supposed to be their liver\ Whe-
ther these last are to be regarded merely as veins, has
not been ascertained ; they seem rather to convey the
blood outwards, than to return it back to the heart : but
this question must be left for future investigation. I may
observe, however, that though the heart of the spider
has been traced only in the abdomen, it may probably ex-
tend into the trunk.

The heart of the scotpion has been examined both by
Treviranus and Marcel de Serres ; but as the descrip-
tion of the latter is most clear and intelligible, I shall
princ^Htlly confine myself to that The heart, then, of
these animals is elongated, almost cylindrical, but atte-
nuated at each end ; it is extended firom the head to the
extremity of the tail, and appears to have four pairs of
lateral muscles. On each side are four pairs of principal
vessels, which go to the pulmonary pouches, and there
ramify. These may be assimilated to veins. Besides
these, there are four other vessels that cross them, form-
ing with them an acute angle, and which, with four
branches of smaller size, receive the blood from the pul-
monary pouches, and distribute it to the different parts

* Treviranus Arachnid. 2S. t, iii./ 28, 29.
" Ibid 29. t. iii./. 30, 31.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 95

of the body, — these are the arteries. Before it enters
the taO, the heart throws out two vascular branches
which do not go to the gills, but distributing the blood
to different parts, ought to be considered as arteries'.
Treviranus mentions bunches of reticulated vessels, con-
cerning the use and origin of which he seems uncertain^ ;
but as they approach the gills, they are probably the
branching extremities of what M. de Serres considers
as the veins.

• N. Did. (THist. Nat. ixx. 420. Comp. Treviran. Arachnid. 10—.
»» Ibid. 9-.

LETTER XL.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

DIGESTION.

** XHE immense Class of insects," says the immortal
Cuvier, " in the structure of its alimentary canal exhibits
as many variations as those of all the vertebrate animals
together : there are not only the differences that strike
us in going from family to family and from species to
species ; but one and the same individual has oflen^a Go-
nial quite different, according as we examine it in its
larva or imago state ; and all these variations have rela-
tions very exact, often easily estimable, with the tempo-
rary or constant mode of life of the animals in which it
is observable. Thus the voracious larvae of the Scara-^
beet and butterflies have intestines ten times as large as
the winged and sober insects — if I may use such an ex-
pression—to which they give birth*."

In the natural families of these creatures, the same
analogy takes place with respect to this part that is ob-
servable in the rest of the Animal Kingdom ; the length
and complication of the intestines are here, as in the
other Classes, often an index of a less substantial kind

* Anat, Comp. iv. 129.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IN$S£CTS. 97

of nutriment; while their shortness and slendemess in-
dicate that the insect lives by prey".

In oMiaidering therefore the parts connected with the
digestive functions of the insect world) it will not be amiss
to have reference to Xhevtfood^ and their mode of taking
it; but first it will be proper to state and define the parts
of this important organ.

In general the alimentary canal ^ is composed of the
same essential iunicks as that of the vertebrate animals,
consisting of an interior epidermis, a papillary and cellu-
lar tunick, and an exterior muscular one^. The first is
nsuall}^ tender, smooth, and transparent ; but not always
discoverable, probably on account of its tender sub-
stance^. Ramdohr does not notice the papillary and
cellular tunicks; they are probably synonymous with what
he demmiinates — the^fiociy layer {Diejhckige lage)^ and
which he describes, when highly magnified^ as appear-
ing to c<msist of very minute globules or dark points, and
as being of a cellular structure*. The exterior tunick is
thicker and stronger than the interior^ and composed ci
muscuW fibres, running either longitudinally or trans-
versely, so as to form rings round the canal. This tu-
nick mostly begins at the mouth, and goes to the anus«
changing its conformation in different parts of the
above intestine. Sometimes however it originates only
at the beginning of the stomach ^. With respect to its
general disposition, that canal — ^in its relative length, in
the size of its different parts, in the number and form of
it^ dilatations, and particularly of its stomachs and its

• Cuv. Anat. Comp, iv. 129. •» Plate XXI. Fig. c, d, e, is the
intestinal canal of the larva of the Cossus, '^ Cuv. IM, 112.

•* Ramdohr Anat. der Im, 6. ' Ibid. 25. f Ibid. 6.,

VOL. IV. H

98' INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

coecumS) and In the folds of its interior — exhiHts varia-
tions altogether analogous to those of vertebrate animals,
and which produce similar effects^. As to itsparts^ it
may be considered as consisting of two larger portions,
between which the biliary or hepatic vessels form the
point of separation. In the first, the most universal parts
are the gullet and the stomach ; and in the second, the
small intestine and the large intestine^.

1« The gtdlet {CEsophagtis^) is that portion of the in-
testinal canal which, receiving the food from the pharynx,
or immediately from the mouth, conveys it to the sto-
mach. Though it often ends just behind the head\ it
is usually continued through the trunkj and sometimes
even extends into the middle of the abdomen^ ; it there-
fore seldom much exceeds in length half the body. It
is constantly long when the head is connected with
the trunk by a narrow canal — as in the Hymenopiera,
Neuroptera^ Lepidoptera^ &c. ; but is frequently short
when these parts are more intimately united ^ It oflen
ends in a kind of sac analogous to the crop of bnrds.
Under this head I must mention a part discovered by
Ramdohr, which he calls the food-hag (Speisesack), pe-
culiar to, as he thinks. Dipteral. From the mouth in
these proceeds a narrow tube into the abdomen, where
it expands into a blind sac having no connexion with
the stomach ; so that the fluid food, as blood, &c stored
in it, must be regurgitated into the mouth before it can

" Cuv. ubiiupr, 113. •» Com p. Ramdohr Aiutt, 7.

' Plate XXI. Fto. 3. c. ^ TVn^rto Ramdohr, tibisupr. 9.

/. iv./. 1. * Agrion, Ibid, t, xv./. 4, a, b. ^ Ibid.

' Many other insects that live by suction have something simflar,
as the honey-bag of butterflies, Plate XXX. Fig. 10, 11. a. Ram-
dohr L xviii./. 2, with t. xix./. 1—3. and xxi. 1. 3, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 99

i

pass into that organ '. Thus these animals, besides their
I stomach, have a reservoir in which to store up their food ;

the product therefore of a single meal will require seve-
ral days to digest it

. 2. The stomach {Ventricultis^) is that part of the in-
testinal canal immediately above the bile*vessels, which
receives the food from the gullet for digestion, and traps-
mits it when digested to the lower intestines^. By its
admixture with the gastric juice, the food acquires in the
stomaeh a quite different colour from what it had in the
gullet. In herbivorous insects it contains no acid, but,
like the gastric juice of herbivorous quadrupeds^ is of an
alkaline nature^. The chyle is forced through this or-
gan, probably in part by the pressure of the muscular
fibres during the peristaltic motion ^ and being pressed
through the inner skin, is first collected in the interme-
diate cellular part, and ultimately forced through the
outer skin^. At its posterior end it terminates in the
pylorus^ a fleshy ring or sphincter formed of annular mus-
cular fibres ^. The stomach often consists of two or more
successive divisions, which are separated from each other,
and are often of an entirely difierent conformation and
shaped. In the OrthopterOf Predaceous CokopterOf and
several other insects, an organ of this kind precedes the
ordinary stomach, which from its structure Cuvier deno-
minates a second stomach or gizzdtrd^ ; Possdt impro-
perly calls it Cardial ; and by Ramdohr it is named the

• Ramdohr Anat. 11—. ^ Plate XXI. Fig. 3. d.

<" Ramdohr Ibid. 28—. ^ Herold (Schmetterl 24)

says that Ramdohr is mistaken here, and denies the existence of this
juice in insects; but as Ramdohr's researches were so widely extended,
he is most likely to be right. * Ramdohr Ibid. 99.

^ Ibid. 31. J? lind. 28.

^ Anat. Comp. iv. 135. ' Ramdohr, M tupr, 15.

H 2

r^

i ] '^. -*'

t

100 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

plaited'Stamach [Falten-magen^). It is a short fleshy
part, consiisting of two skins, placed above the opening
of the stomach, and perhaps rather belongs to the gullet.
The inner skin is formed into longitudinal folds, and
sometimes armed with horns, teeth, or bristles. Its ca*
vity is very small and compressed, so as to admit only
small masses of food, and yet present them to a wide sur*
lace for the action of the teeth or bristles ; — in this sto-
mach therefore, as in the gizzard of birds, to which it
seems clearly analogous^, the food is more effectually
Comminuted and rendered fit for digestion. The mus->
cles, by which its action upon~ the food is supported, in
some species amount to many thousands'. Rudiments
of a gizzard are sometimes found concealed in the gullet
of many insects **. The idea of Swammerdam, Cuvier, &c.
that grasshoppers and other insects that have this kind
of stomach, chew the cud% Ramdohr affirms is entirely
erroneous ^. Besides its divisions, the stomach has other
appendages that require notice. In most Ortkoptera^ a
pair or more of blind intestines or cceca may be found at
the point of union of the gizzard with the stomach*^, which
have been regarded as forming a third stomach : they
also begin the stomach in the louse** ; they form a coro-
net round the apex of that organ, in the grub of the cock-
chafer * ; and in that of the rose-beetle, there is one at the
apex, one in the middle, and a third at the base*. Be^
sides these appendages, which are formed of the «kin of

' Ramdohr Ami. 16. »» Ibid. IS. « IMd. «» Ibid.

• Swamto. £ibl. Nat. I 94. b. Cuv. Anai. Con^. iv. J 34.

' Ubi iupt. 18. » Ibid, t If. I.e. 5. c. 9. g, h,

^ Ibid, t XXV. /. 4. bb. i Ibid. t. viii./. 3. cc.

^ Ibid. t. vii./. 2.

■ ' .' • •
•.• ••

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 101

the Stomach, there are others that are not so. In the Pre-
daceous and some other beetles, the whole external sur-
face cf this organ is covered with small blind appendages
opening into the space between its two skins, which cause
it to resemble a shaggy cloth ; these Ramdohr calls shags
{zoite^\ and Cuvier, hairs^ {villi). These appendages
the latter author seems to regard as organs that secrete
the gastric juice and render it to the stomach^ ; but the
former thinks their use uncertain^.

5. The small intestines {Intestifia parva) are the .por-
tion of intestines next the stomach, and consist often of
three distinct canals ; — the first is supposed to be analo-
gous to the duodenum ; it is found only in the Coleopterous
genera Silpha L. and Lampyris L., and is distinguished
from the succeeding intesdne by being perfectly smooth ^.
Next follows the ikin intestine {Dunndarm Ram.), which
in the above insects is wrinkled ; it most commonly imme-
diately follows the stomach. Sometimes it is wholly want-
ing, as In Agriony the Hemiptera % &c. Ramdohr conjec-
tures that it is not solely destined for conveying the ex-
crement, but that probably some juices are separated in it
from the food especially for the nutritioa of the gall-
vessels, as their principal convolutions are mostly near
this intestine <^ ; which perhaps may in some cases be re-
garded as analogous to the jejunum in vertebrate ani-
mals. The third pair of the small intestines, which per-
haps represents the iteum^ Ramdohr distinguishes by the
name of chdh-shaped (Keulformigen Darm^). It may ge-

* Tbid. 20. * Anat Comp, iv. IS±

' Ibid, and 130. ^ Ubi tupr. 30.

« Ibid. 31. t, Vf.f, 2. e. i. v./. 1. d,f. 4. D. ' Ibid, 32.

« Ibid. 34. " Ibid. 36.

102 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nerally be regarded as only a continuation of the former
thickened at the end so as to resemble a club reversed.
It is however sometimes separated from the thin intes-
tine, as in Callichroma moschatum*.

4. The large intestines {Intestina magna) consist some-
times of two portions. The tkick intestine {Dicken^darm^
which may be regarded as a kind of cacum, is found only
in the larvae of the Lamellicom beetles, but never in the
perfect insect In shape it is oval and folded ; whence
it is thicker than the rest of the intestinal canal, and is
constantly filled with excrement^. The second portion
of these intestines is the rectum {Mastdarm\ which ter-
minates in the anal passage* This part is scarcely ever
wanting, except when the insect evacuates no excrement,
which is the case with the grubs of bees, wasps, and the
antlioh {Myrmeleon). In the imago of Telephorus^ at
least in T.fmcus^ it is also obsolete ^ : in most cases, how-
ever, it is very distinct from the preceding intesdne.
^ Sometimes it consists of only one tunick composed of
muscular fibres**. When the gullet is wide, the rectum
is usually so likewise ; but when it follows a club-shaped
or thick intestine, it is narrow •. It generally may be
termed short ^. When wide, it often contains a great
quantity of excrement, as the gullet does of undigested
food ; but when narrow, the excrement seldom remains
long in it. This intestine also in a few cases has a lateral
enlargement or ccecum {Blind'darm\ being a continuation
of the same skin ; but perhaps this enlargement is really

■ Ramdohr Anal, t, xxiv./. 1. F.

• Ibid, 36. /. vii./ 2. kk. t viil./. 3. g, hh.

• JbitL U xii./. 1. /. xvii./. 1. /. vii./. 6. * Ibid. 37.

• Ibid, 38. f Ibid,

« « '

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 103

analogous to what Ramdohr calls the thick intestine^
though in these cases he regards it as an appendage of
the rectum*.

I must npw call your attention to the bile^vessels of in-
sects. These^ by M alpighi ^ and the earlier physiologists,
who regarded them as a kind of lacteals, were denomi-
nated varicose vessels : but Cuvier — and his opinion after
some hesitation has been adopted by Ramdohr — consi-
ders them as vessels for the secretion of bilcj and as ana-
logous to the liver of animals that have a circulation ^.
As the want of blood-vessels prevents insects from hav-
ing any gland, the bile is produced with them, as all
their other secretions, by slender vessels that float in
their nutritive fluid, and from thence secrete the elements
proper to form that important product, which usually
tinges them with its own yellow hue ; though in the La^-
mdlicoms and Capricorns they are of an opaque white,
and in the Dytisci of a deep brown colour^. Their bitter
taste further proves that they contain the bile ^. They are
long, slender, filiform, tortuous or convoluted, and mostly
simple vessels ; sometimes gradually smaller toward the
base^, at others, towards the apex^. In some, screw-
shaped^: in one larva, with hemispherical elevations^:
in the cockchafer, part of them are fringed on each side
with an infinity of short, blind, minute, setiform tubes,
while the rest are naked ^ ; they are composed of a single,
thin, transparent membrane, according to Ramdohr ' ; but

• IHd, 40. •» De Bombyc. 18—. « AnaJt. Comp. iv. 153,

* Ibid. • Ibid,

f Ramdohr 43. Cicindela campettris, t in./. 1. K.
' Phiyganea grandity Ibid, t xvi./. 2. ** Notonecta glauca.

Ibid, i, xxiii./. 5. * 0£ Mtuca vomitoria. Ibid, t, xix./. 5,

^ Ibid. t. Viii./. 1. H. and G./. 2. ' Ibid, 50,

104 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Cuvi^r thinks their texture is spongy^. They appear
to contain a number of small, irregular, dark granules,
which float in a peculiar fluid, with which, however, they
are not always filled throughout, nor are thev constantly
permeable from one end to the other. Thus, in the meal-
worm beetle ( Tenebrio Molitat^), the common trunk by
which they are attached to the intestinal canal is com-
posed of gelatinous granules^. The place of their in-
sertion is generally a little below the pylorus^ but in the
common cockroach they are inserted into the stomach
just above that part^. Usually each vessel opens singly
into the intestinal canal, which the whole number sur-
round at an equal distance from each other ^. Some-
times, however, they are connected witii it by a common
tube in which they all unite, as in the asparagus-beetle
{Lema Asparagi *) ; in the house-fly ( Musca domestical and
pther Muscidcey each pair unites so as to form a single
branch on each side of the canal previously to their in«
sertion^ ; in the field-cricket {Gryllus campestris) they are
all inserted in one spot ^: and when numerous, they are ge-
nerally attached singly though irregularly**. These ves-
sels at their base do not open into the cavity of the in->
testinal canal, but merely into the space between its outer
and inner tunicks, the last being constantly imperforate*.
With regard to their apex^ the bile-vessels are some-
times^<r^rf singly or connectedly to the intestine merely by
a few muscular fibres ; for they do not enter it, their ends
having no orifice. This structure is mostly to be met

■ Ubitupr, •* Ramdohr, ubi supr, "^ Ibid, 44. t. \,f, 9.

o Ilfid, . • Ibid, t, vi./. 5. H.

f Ibid. t. xix./. \.N,N, O,/. 2. P, P, O. « Ibid. 1. 1./. 1. kkk.

^ Ibid. L xiii./. 1—3. » Ibid. 44.

•

•

■••• ••• • • »

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. lOJ

with in the Caleoptera *. in caterpillars, the tops of these
vessels perforate the outer skin of the rectum, and pro*
ceeding in dense convolutions to the anus, become at last
so fine thft their terminations cannot be discovered **.
In other cases, the extremities of a pair of these vessels
unite so as to form a double one : this may be seen in
those of Staphylinns politus^j and probably other rove*
beetles : and lastly, in others the bile-vessels arejieet
hanging down by the intestinal canal, without being at-
tached to it or to each other. This structure is con-
stantly found in the Orthoptera and Hymenopta'a Or-
ders, fee.**.

With regard to their numbe?^ the bile-vessels vary from
two to upwards of one hundred and fifty, yet so that
their whole amount is constantly the product of the num-
ber two, — at least as far as they have been counted : and
even when those on one side are not alike, a similar va*-
riation takes place in the other, as may be seen in Gal-
leruca Vitellince^ where on each side are two long ones
and one shorter • ; the most usual numbers dLTe^four —
six — or manyj that is, more than twenty —

Two bile-vessels are found in the larva of Cetonia aurata ^.
JFour • • most Coleqptera^ Diptera^

and Hemiptera^.
Six •••••••.•••• LepidopterOy some Coleth-

pt€ra\ &c.

» IbuL 45. b Ibid. 45. Plate XXI. Fig. 3././

«= Ramdohr, Ibid, /. iii./. 6. E.

•» Ibid, t. i./. 1. 5 9. /. xiv./. 1—3. * Ibid. 46. <. vi. /. 3.

' Ibid, t vii./. 2, ' Ibid. t. ii. ui. &c. /. xx./. 1,^. 6.

/. xxii./. 1—5. &c. * Ibid.t. xviii./. 1. 5. t. vr.f. 1. Sec

also t vi./. 1. 3.

106 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

£igfA^ bile-vessels areToimd in Myrmeleonj Hemerobim^.

Fourteen Formica rufa^.

Twenty larva of Tenthredo Ame^

rime^. »

Many Libellulinoy Orthopfera^

and Hymenoptera^.

The bile-vessels vary considerably in length : in many
cases where they av^Jree they are short * ; they are often
very long, and perhaps those that ^x^Jixed may be gene-
rally stated as the longest. In the Lamellicom beetles
they are remarkable for their great length ^.

Having, given you this general account of the intesti-
nal canal and its parts and appendages, I shall now state
some of the peculiarities that in this respect distingubh
particular tribes and famiUes.

The Coleoptera alone, exhibit as many variations in
the structure of the alimentary tube as all the other Or-
ders of insects together : — to particularize these would
occupy too large a portion of this letter, I shall therefore
only notice a few of the most remarkable. In general
they may be stated as having universally a stomach, a
small intestine and rectum, and not more than th^ee pairs
oi^ed or united bile-vessels. In the Predaceous beetles,
the gullet mostly widens at the base into a considerable
cropi followed by a gizzard^ a shaggy stomachy and two
pairs of united bile-vessels. The whole alimentary canal
in these, is never less than dovble^ and sometimes treble
the length of the body*. In the carnivorous beetles, at

• Ramdohr Anaf. t. xvii./. 1, 2. 6. «> IM. i. xiv./ 3.

« /«</. /. xiii./. 4. ^ Ibid. t. xv./. 3, 4. 1. 1./. 1. 5. 9. /. xii.

/. 4, 5, 6, &c. « Ilnd, t, x\.f. 4. t xii./ 4—6. t. xiii./. 2-4, &c.
' Ibid, t, vii./ 1. /. viu./ I, &c. « Ibid, t ii. iii. XXV.

INTEENAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 107

least the Staphylinida and Silphidce^ there is little or no
crop — the gizzard is hidden : in the former, the whole
length of the intestinal canal is not tv^iice^ while in the
latter it is tflore than four times that of the body ^, In
these also the ihtermediate portion of the large intestine
is singularly annulated'^. In the Lamellicoms the sto^
mach is usually longer than all the rest of the intestines
together, and often convoluted : in the cockchafer the
whole intestinal canal is neBilyJive times the length of the
hody,,/&ttr parts of which is occupied by the stomach^.
In the grub the canal scarcely exceeds the length of the
animal^. In Lampyris the stomach exhibits a remark-
able appearance, having on each side a series of spheri-
cal^^ or vesicles^. Have these any thing to do with
the secretion of its phosphoric matter? Tenebrio has a
gizzard armed internally with calluses, and a shaggy sto-
mach, and Blaps does not difier materially ; their entire
canal is more than twice the length of the body ^. In the
vestcatoryheeHes {Cantkarisj Meloe^ &c.) there is no giz^
zardj and the canal is less than twice the length of the
body ^. Little Is known with regard to the alimentary canal
of the beetles distinguished by a rostrum {Curcidio L.)»
In the only two that appear to have been examined, Atte^
labus Bettdeti and Cryptorhynchus Lapathiy that canal is
moderately long, the stomach partially shaggy, and the
small intesdne inversely claviform ; but in other respects
they differ materially^. In the former there is no crop
or gizzard, the stomach is fringed on each side, except
at its upper extremity, with a series of small cceca or
shags, and there are three pairs of bile-vessels* ; while

• Ihid. U iii./. 6. /. iv./ «. L v./. I, •• IhidJ. 1. e.f, 3.

« Jhid, \n. ^ Ibid. 1«3. « Ibid, L v./ 4. B. f lUi, 94.
« lh\d. 96-. "" Ibid, L x./. 1. 8. * Ibid./. 8. b c.

108 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the latter the gullet is dilated into a crop which in-
cludes a gizzard in which the skill of a Divine artist
is singularly conspicuous : — ^though so minute as scarcely
to exceed a large pin's head in size^ it is stated to be
armed internally with more than 400 pairs of teeth,
moved by an infinitely greater number of muscles*. A
transverse section of this ^zzard represents two concen-
tric stars, with nine rays each^ : the object of this struc-
ture is, the comminution of the timber which this beetle
has to perforate and probably devour^. The stomach
is very slender, but dilates in the middle into a spherical
vesicle^, and there are only two pairs of bile-vessels*.
In the Capricorn beetles, the part we are considering
varies much : in general we may observe that it is moi'e
than double the length of the body, that the stomach is
long and slender, and usually naked, that the gullet ter-
minates in a crop without a distinct gizzard, and that
there are three pairs of bile-vessels^. In the Herbivo-
rous beetles {Ckrysomela L. Cassida L.) the canal is more
tlian double the length of the body, and in some much
longer^, the stomach is long, and commonly naked ; but
m CArysomela violacea it is covered with hemispherical
prominences \ and in Ckrysomela Poptdi it is shaggy' ;
in the insect last named and Gall^ruca Vitellirue the rec-
tum consists of ttsx) pieces K In this tribe the intestines
of the larva resemble those of the perfect insect ^

In the Orthoptera the alimentary canal, which conti-

• Ramdohr 98. t. x./. 2 — 4. From Rarodohr's figure^ compared
with the sire of the insect, it appears that the ^zard could scarcely
have been of greater diameter. ^ Ibid./, 2.

« See Curtis in Linn. Trans, i. 88. ^ Ramdohr /. x./. 1. rf.

« /*irf. //. f Ibid. L ix./ 1, 2. t. xi./. 3, t xxiv./. 1. 2.

'« Ibid. 103. h /^-^^ 104. t. vi./. 4. D. » Ibid.f, % B.

k Ibid. L vi./ 3. E. » Ibid. 101.

INTEENAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 109

Hues the same in every state, is short, or only moderately
long ; die gullet has one or two lateral pouches or cr<^s*,
and terminates in a gizzard of curious construction, with
singular folds and teeth ^ ; then follows a short stomachy
usually with a pair or more of ccBca at its upper extre-
mity^ ; the lower intestines are not distinct, and the bile*
vessels numerous, short and free^.

In the Neuraptera^ maHiy of the genera are distin-^
guished by the remarkable length of the gullet, and by
the lower intestines forming one short piece ^ In the Li*
belUdina the bile^ vessels are numerous, short, and free,
as in the Orthoptera ^^ In Hemerobius and Myrmeleon
there is a gizzard <^, and just above it a coecum^ in the for-*
mer very remarkable, is connected with the gullet^.

The Hymenofptera appear all to be distinguished by a
long slender gullet, terminating in a dilated crop form*
ing the honey-bag ; their stomach is variable, their small
intestine slender, and the rectum dilated; — their bile-ves*
sels, like those of the two preceding Orders, are nume-
rous, short, and free*. In the ants and ichneumons there
is an approach to a gizzard ^, In the wasp and humble*
bee the stomach is very long, with muscular rings sur<-
rounding it'. In this Order the larvee at first have no
lower intestines and void no excrement", but as they ap-
proach to the pupa state one begins to appear **.

» Ramdohr U If. 1. 5. 9. »» Ibid./. 2, 3, 4. 7, 8. 12.

« Ihid.f. I. <?,/. 5. c,f. 9. g A. « Ibid.f. 1. 9. *.

• Ibid. t. xv./. 3, 4. U xvii./. 2. 6. ' Ihid. t. xv./. 3, 4./.
« Ibid, t, xvii./ 2. c./. 6. d. »» Ibid./. 2. b.f. 6. c.

i Ihid. t. xii./ 6. H. t. xiii./. 1./. ^ Ibid. t. xiv./. 2, 3, C.
» /Airf. t xii./ 6. 1). t xiii./. 1. b. "» Ibid. 133. U xU./ 1-3.

• Ibid./. 4.

no IKTERtTAL ANATOMV OF INSECTS.

The next insects whose alimentary canal we are to
consider, are those whicb, taking their food by suction,
have no occa^on for masticating organs : tlus may in
part be predicated of the preceding Order, in which
most of the tribes in their perfect state imbibe fluid food*
and use the ordinary organs of mastication principally in
operations connected with their economy; and their crop,
in wbiclt the honey in many is stored up tor regurgita-
tion, may be regarded in some degree as analogouB to the
food-bag of the Diptera and other suctorious insects.

TThe two sections of the Hemiptera Order differ widely
in the canal we are considering, and I shall therefore
give a separate account of each. In the Hetercqtterous
section, upended to the gullet by a long convoluted ca-
pillary tube, besides the usual saliva-reservoirs there is
often a double vessel, which Ramdohr regards as dis-
charging the same fimction, but which in many respects
seems rather analogous to the food 'reservoir of the Di-
ptera *. As I have had no opportunity of examining this
vessel, I shall content myself with stating this idea, and
describe the vessel more fully hereafter. The gullet, in
these, usually terminates in an ample crop consisting of
many folds'', followed by a long, slender, cylindrical
tube, dilated at its base into a ^herical tiunour ; these
two may be said to form the first stomach : to this suc-
ceeds a second', which Ramdohr denominates' the bug-
stomach ( Wanzen-magen), which varies in its figure, and
in Pentatoma consists of four demi-tubes, so as to form a

' Comp. Ramdohr t.xxiL/. Z.M. Fig. 4.3. with txiL/. 1,7.
IHd. t. xxii./. I. c./. 3, 4. B—. ' liid./. 1. D E.f. 3. CD.

JHTERNAL ANAl'OMV OF INS£GTS« 111

quadrangular canal*. In the Homopterom section of
this Order Ramdohr seems to have examined but few;
Chermes however «id Aphis exhibit one remarkable fea-
ture ; they have no bUe^vesselSy at least he could discover
no trace of these organs*'. Their intestinal canal is very
simple, their stomach very long, widest above, and some-
what convoluted, with a very slender gullet^. In Ce*
reopis spumaria the structure is more complex, and ex-
tremely singular. It has two or rather three stomachs^
the two first of a homy substance, and the last a slen-
der somewhat convoluted membranous tube, which be-
coming reversed, is attached by what should be deemed
its lower extremity to the first stomach, from the other
side of whicK emerge the lower intestines, terminating in
a thick pear-shaped rectum. At the same point of the
first stomach the four bile-vessels are attached, they
groWs gradually thicker for about a third of their length,
when they become twisted like a cord, and taper towards
the rectum, to which also they are attached^. From
this structure it should seem that the food has to pass
twice through the first stomach, before the process of
digestion is complete, and it is rejected at the anus.

The next suctorious Order is the Lepidoptera : in
these the gullet is long and slender, surrounded at the
banning with a loose transparent skin, and at the base
fomished with a pair of lateral sacs, forming the honey-
stomach, and probably analogous to the food-reservoirs
of the Diptera^ which when blown up are of an oval
form ; the stomach, as in the bugs, consists of tvoo por-

• Ramdohr t. xxii./. 1. D, E.fi 3. C, D./ 4. C. ^ Ibid. 198.
' Ibid, t xxvi./. 2. 4. * Ibid. t. xxxiii./. 3.

112 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS*

lions, the first being the longest '. There are three^^^
bile-vessels on each side, proceeding firom a single
branch^. It will not be uninteresting here to abstract
from Herold the progressive changes which take place
in the intestinal canal in this Order, during the transition
of the animal from the larva to the imago state. In the
larva, the gullet, the small intestine, and the rectum, are
short and thick ^, there are a pair of silk reservoirs {se»
ricteria\ as well as vessels for the secretion of saliva
{sialisteria) : if you examine it two days after its first
change, you will find the gullet and the small intestine
much lengthened and become very slender ; the stomach
contracted both in length and size ; the rectum also
changed, and the silk vessels contracted^. These in a
pupa eight days old have wholly disappeared ; the guUet
is become still longer, its base is dilated into a crop or
food*reservoir ; the stomach is still more contracted, and
instead c^ a cylinder represents a spindle ; the small in-
testine also is lengthened ^ : at a still more advanced pe*
nod, when it is near appearing under its last form, the
gullet and small intestine are still more drawn out; and
the honey-bag, though very minute, has become a latersd
appendage of the gullet '^; and lastiy, in the butterfly it
appears as a large vesicle^ ; the small intestine is grown
very long^ ; and the rectum has changed its form and ac*
quired a coecum ■• When we consider the adaptation of
all these changes of form, the loss of old organs and the
acquisition of new ones, to the new functions and mode

• Ramdohr L xvin./. 1. F, G. ^ Ibid, L, K,

• Plate XXX. Fig. 7. * Ibid. Fig. 8. • Ibid. Fig. 9.
' Ibid. Fig. 10. « Ibid. Fig. U.a. ^ Ibid. p.

> Ibid. d.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 113

of life of the animal, we see evidently tfee all-powerful
hand of that Almighty Being who created the universe,
upholding by his providence, and the law that he has
given to every creature, the system that he at first brought
into existence.

We now come to the Diptera. These have a very sleit-
der gullet, to which is attached on one side a long fili-
form tube, terminating in the food-reservoir, which in
some instances is simple^, but most generally coi^sists of
two or more vessels **, collapsing when empty, but vary-
ing in shape and size when inflated with food : the mouth
of the stomach in many cases is dilated into a kind of
ring^; sometimes there is on each side a blind appendage
or caecum opening into it, in Bombylius covered with
shags, which though not connected with the mouth by a
tube, Ramdohr regards as saliva-reservoirs**; in Musca
vomitoria the beginning of this organ below th^ mouth
is covered with hemispherical prominences, and in T/-
pula it is dilated and marked widi transverse folds. There
are usually two pairs of bile-vessels; in the Muscida
pedunculate ondjiee ^ ; in Ttjmla, Bombylitis^ and RhagiOy
sessile and united^ ; and in Tabanus sessile nnAJixed^^
It is remarkable that in some of this Order — the reverse
of what usually happens — ^the alimentary canal appears to
be much longer in the larva than it is in the iinago ; in^
Musca vamiloriay its length in thejbrmer is two inches
and a quarter, while in the latter it is only one inch and

* Ramdohr, Ibid, t xx./. 1. E,f. 6. C.

»» Ibid, L xix./. 2. C,f. 3. CCD, t. xx./. 2. E.

^ Ibid, t. xix./. 2. Z>.

^ Ibid. t. xx./ 2, FF.f, ©. DD. 184. 180.—

* Ibid. t. xix./ 1. ON,f. 2. OP.f. 3. F. t. xxviii./ 1, 2. p. q,

* Ibid. U XX. f. 1. G.f. 2, 3. L. ' Ibid, t xxi./ I D,

VOL. IV. I

114 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

one third*. A singular organ distinguishes the imago
of this species, the use of which appears not to be disco-
vered. It succeeds the rectum, and has on each »de
two short club-shaped appendages, op w at die end, which
receive trachea^ and terminate in a short piece that opens
into the anus^

In Hippobosca and its affinities the canal in question
differs from that of other Diptera, in having no food-re-
servoir; in other respects it resembles it^.

From the above statement it appears that the princi-
pal character which distinguishes those that take their
food by suction^ from those that masticate it, is the faculty
with which they are iurnished by means of an ample
crop, honey-'Stomach, or food^-reservoir, of regurgitating
the food they may have stored up. Another distinction
still more striking, which will appear more evidently here-
after, is to be seen in the saliva-secretoi^s with which the
siictorious tribes are famished, to be found in very few
masticators, by which they are enabled to render the
juices more fluid and fit for suction.

The only insect amongst the Aptet^a whose alimentary
canal I shall notice, is the common harvest-^man (Pha-
langium Opilio) : in this, though the stomach and lower
intestine are remarkably simple, yet their coecal appen-
dages are numerous and singular; the former, which
has no distinct gullet, is pear-shaped**; and the latter,
tapering downwards, and truncated at the end*^; con-

9

* Ramdohr, lUd, 17:2. " IbuL L xix./. 2, XL. Tliis

organ seems analogcms to that with foiir retractile fleshy horns, ob-
served by Reaumur and Do Geer in other species of il/ttfc^tf-.
Reanm. iv. /. xxviii./. 13. «, s, De Geer vi. /. iii./. 18. c, if.

c Ramdohr, t xxi./. G. ^ Ibid. f. xxix./. I* A,

' Jbid. and/. X Ji, J).

INTERNAt ANATOMY OF INSPCTS. 115

nected with it above are no less than twenty-three cctca
or blind appendages, of various forms and dimensions;
the last [>air but one of which is very remarkable, being
bent like a bow, find ihmished extemiEdly with fpur short
clavate processes ^. Jt is probable that some o( these or-
gans are f^nalogous to die bile-vessels of other insects.

When the Creator in his wisdom fixed the limits of
the various tribes of animals, he united them all into on^
harmonious system by means of certain intermediate
forms, exhibiting characters taken some from those th^t
were to precede, and others from those that were to fol^
low them, and this not only in their external structure,
but likewise in their internal organizfition ; so that we are
not to wonder if in the same individual we meet with
organs that belong to two distinct tribes, or if, remaining
nearl^^ thesaime m their 'prima facie appearance, they be-,
gin to exercise new functions. An instance of this we
have seen in the dorsal vessel of insects, which in the
Arachni^y though *not materially different in situation
or general form, by the addition of a smt^U apparatus of
arteries and veins becomes the centre and fountain of ^
regular system of circulation*'. From the circumstances
liere alluded to> physiologists have been Jed to entertain
veiy different sentiments with regard to the structure of
the allmcntaiy organs of the Class we are now to enter
upon, the Arachnida ; what some regard as a re^l liveVy
othei*s look upon as an epiploon or caul ; and what the last
denominate 6z7^-vessels are by some of the fprmer consi-r
(dered iis appropriated to the secretion of chyle^^ Yet

* md,f. 2, 3. 5. &c. •' See above, p. 93—.

^ Trcviraiiiis and Ramdohr are of the fonmer opinion j and Meckel,
Cinier, Marcel cje Serres, and Leon du Four, of the latter.

J 3

116 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INS£C1*S.

both these opinions have some foundation in nature.
. When, in the Aracknidaj we discover a lobular substance
consisting of granules filling the whole cavity of the body
and wrapped round the intestines, every one will see in
it no small analogy to the epiploon which in insects pei -
forms the same function : but wh^i, upon a further exa-
mination, we detect certain vessels communicating with
this substance and the intestinal canal*, the idea that
these may be hepatic ducts^ and this substance analogous
to the Z/u^r, immediately strikes us as not improbable.
Again : when we discover pairs of other capillary and
tortuous vessels connecting with the intestinal canal either
at the pyloiiis^ or below itS which in appearance strik-
ingly resemble the bile-vessels which we so constantly
find in insects, we seem warranted in concluding that they
are of the same nature and use : but when a nearer in-
spection enables us to detect the hepatic ducts just men-
tioned in the scorpion, and we find that these capillary
vessels in the spider are in a very different situation from
those in insects which we suppose them to represent, it
oQcurs to us as not unlikely, that i\iQ\vJimctionii\2iyhe dif^
ferent.

Let us now consider how the intestinal canal is cir-
cumstanced in the two sections into which the Class
Arachnida is divided ; tlie Scorpionidce^ and Araneid^e.
In the Scorpions, this organ proceeds from the mouth
to -the anus without any flexure or convolution, so that
its length is scarcely equal to tliat of the body**; it is
slender, and its diameter, with the exception of an irre-
gular dilatation here and there, is nearly the same in
its whole extent ; the gullet is short ; the stomach long,

'* Treviran. Arachnid, f. 1./, 6. t^ ** Ibid, «.

' Ibid. t. ii. /. 24. /3. '• Ibid.f, iV B B,

INTERNAL ANATOMY Of INSJECTS* 11?

and nearly cylindrical ; the duodenum shorter and *
thicker than the stomach, from which, as well as from
the rectum^ it is separated by a valve ; the latter is cy-
lindrical, and opens at the anus above the insertion of
tlie vesicle that secretes the poison*. With r^ard to
the biliary system and its organs : The livei' is of a
pulpy granular consistence and of a brownish colour,
fills the whole cavity of the trunk and abdomen, and
serves as a bed for the other intestines. It is divided
longitudinally into two portions, by the channel in which
the heart reposes — ^its anterior part is formed into many
irregular lobes, by the siniTosities of the trunk ; at the
other extremity it terminates in two acute ends, which
enter the first joint of the tail ; its sur&ce presents a retir
cular appearance, the result of the approximation of poly-
gonous lobuli ; its interior is a tissue of infinitely minute
glands : in Scorpio occitanus there are about forty pyra-
midal lobtdi detached from each other, the summits of
which, by their union, form bunches that have their ex-
cretory canals, varying in number in different species,
which convey the bile to the alimentary tube; in tiie
above insect there are six pairs three in the trunk and
three in the abdomen, and in & Europaus a smaller num-
ber^; these vessels run transversely from the liver, or j^-
gregation of conglomerate glands, to the intestinal canal ^ ;
the bunches consist of an infinite number of spherical
glands, generally filled with a brown thick fluid ^ : be-
sides the transverse vessels, from the base of the stomach

> N. JJicL d*Hi8t. Nat xxx. 423 — . Comp. Treviranus, Arachnid,
t, i.y. 6. •* Treviranus, Ibid, v,

"" K. met. d'Httt. Nat, xxx. 421—. Comp. Treviran. /*irf,
^ N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. Ibid.

lis INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

there issue two pairs of very slender tortuous ones, seem-
itlgly finalbgotls to the common bile-vessels ; one pair of
which runs upwards^ one on each side that organ to-
wards the mouth, forming here and there some ramifi-
cations which enter the livet ; and the other runs nearly
transversely to it*. As the fluid contained in these ves-
sels is different from that cotitained in the glands of the
liver, M. Marcel de Serres supposes they may be chyli-
ferous^

In the Ardneida also the alimentary canal is nearly
straight, and scarcely exceeds the length of the body :
the guUH is rather thick and cylindrical^: the stomach
is distingubhed ftnteliorly by two pairs of sacs, the
tipper pair being much the largest arid nearly triangu-
lar, the lower linear^; from these sacs a narrow tube
mns towards the reciuntj but which is so entangled with
the liver, muscles, Scc.^ as not to be easily made out ^ ; the
i'tttuM is rather tumid, imd has a lateral ccecum ^. The
dispositioii of the liver or conglmnerate glands is stated
to be similar to that of the scoipion ' ; it is usually white,
^but in some species it is 3'ellowish or reddish, and its
low^r surface has sometimes regular excavations'*; no
tratisterse hepatic ducts connecting it with the alimentary
cAtml, as in the scorpion, Appear to have been at present
discovered : two pairs of capillary free vessels are at-
lauched to the base of the reetum on one side, which, ex-
c0pt iu theit situation, seem analogous to the bile- vessels
of insects '\

• trtviran. tbid. L uf. 6* 1 1, cc. ^ 2^. Diet, (tlTul. NiU. ibid,

' Treviraa. Ibid. t. n./. 24. a. •* Ibid. », b.

« Ibid, o rf,/. ^ Ibid, g, H. « AT, Diet. d*mft. Nat. Ibid.

•» Treviran* Ibid. 2S. ' Ibid. t. \i.f. 24. /5.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. U9

From the above detailed account of the alimentary
canal of the animals whose internal anatomy we are con-
sidering, it appears that M. Cuvier's observation — ^^that
the length and complication of the intestines indicate a
less substantial kind of nutriment — does not hold univer-
sally: thus, in 'Secrophorm and Silphoy camivotous insect$^
the intestinal canal in its length and convblutions exceeds
those of most herbivorous ones, and in Cassida viridis and
some others of the latter tribe are not longer than those
of the predaceous beetles. In herbivorous larva also, in
general, the length of the alimentary canal does not ex*
ceed that of the body, but in those of some^sA-flies
{Musca vomitoria) it very greatly exceeds it*. So true
is die observation— that there is no general rule without
exceptions.

In this letter it may not be out of place to say a few
words upon the excrements of insects ; which, strange as
the observation may seem, but it is no less true than
strange, are sometimes pleasing to the eye, from their
symmetry, and to the taste, from their sweetness. In
those that masticate their food they are solid, and in
those that take it by suction, fluid or semi-fluid. In the
caterpillars of Lepidoptera they are of the former de-
scription, and every grain wears some resemblance to an
insect's egg : as the passage in many of these consists of
six fleshy parts separated by channels, so the excrement
represents six little prisms separated by six channels*'.
The Aphides all secrete a fluid excrement as sweet as
honey, of which the ants are so fond^ which is ejected
not only at the anal passage, but, in many, by two little

• Ramdohr, /. xix./. 1. •» Reaum. i. 143 /.v./. 9.

^ Vol. II. p. 88—.

120 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

siphonets also above it*. A semi-fluid excrement is pro-
duced by some species of Chermesy as that which inhabits
the Box, which often comes from the animal in long con-
voluted strings resembling vermicelli. Reaumur says its
taste is agreeable, much more so than that of manna ^.
Under this head should be included the abundant spume
with which the larva of Cercopis spumaria envelopes it-
self ^

» De Geer iii. 26. ^ Reaum. iii. 357. t, xxin.f. 6—10.

« Vol. II. p. 228.

LETTER XLL

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

SECRETION.

rl AVINO given you so full an account of the system of
digestion in insects, I am now to say something concern-
ing their secretions^ and the organs by which they are
elaborated. Though no individual amongst them per-
haps secretes so many different substances as the warm-
blooded animals ; yet in general the Class abounds in
secretions perhaps as numerous and extraordinary as in
the lastp-mentioned tribes, to some of which a few of them
are analogous, while others are altogether peculiar. We
know little or nothing of the mode in which the process
of secretion in insects is accomplished ; in most cases we
cannot even discover, except in general, whence the se^
creted substance originates ; and in others, though we are
able to trace the vessels that contain it, we are often in
the dark as to their structure.-— Cuvier, as has been be-
fore hinted, from not being able to detect any thing in
them like glands, and from their being constantly bathed
in the blood or nutritive fluid, conceives that they sepa-
rate the peculiar substances they contain, by imbibition

122 INTERNAL ANATOMY Of INS£CTS.

or infiltration, through the pores of the skin ^ ; a cir-
cumstance which seems to indicate a certain conforma-
tion of the pores both as to size and figure, so as to en-
able them to admit only one peculiar product.

In treating on this subject, I shall first consider the
organs of secretion, and next their products.

I. Organs of Secretion. In general, these are mem-
branous vessels that float in the blood or nutritive fluid,
and secrete firom it a peculiar substance. They may be
denominated according to their products — Silk-secretorsj
Saliva-'SecretorSf Vamish-^ecretor^ Jelly or GltUen-secre--
tor, Poison-secretor, and Scent^secretors.

i. Silk-secretors {Sericteria)* These organs are most
remarkable in the caterpillars of the nocturnal Lepido^
ptera or moths, especially in that tribe called BomlnfceSy
to which the silk-worm belongs : but this faculty is not
confined to these insects, but is shared by many other
larxkB in diflerent Orders ; and in one instance at least, by
the imago. In general^ the outlet of the silk-secretors is
at the mouth; sometimes, however, as in the larva of
Myrm>eleon and the imago of Htfdrophilus, its exit is at
the anus. The first is the organ which in the silk-worm
provides fi>r us that beautifiil substance firom which the
animal takes its name. There are always tmo of these
vessels, which are long floating tubes, growing slender
towards the head of the insect, where they unite to fi^rm
the spinneret {Jusulus) before described ^ which renders
the silk. Their lower extremity also is commonly more
slender than the middle, and is closed at the end. These
organs are usually very much convoluted and twisted *^-

» Cuv. AnaL Comp, iv. 163—. •» Vol. III. p. 124—.

* Malpigh. De Bomhyc, t. v./. 2. Swamm. t, xxxiy.f. 5. Lyon-
ntt,i. v./. 1.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INISECl'S. 123

According to Ramdohr^, they consist of two trans-
parent membranes, between which is found a yellow or
transparent jelly. The greater the quantity of silk em-
ployed by the caterpillar in the construction of its co^
ooon, &c., the longer are the silk-sccretors. Those of
the silk-worm are ^foot long**, while those of the larva
of the goat-moth are little more than three inches^.

Other msects spin silk with the posterior extremity
of their body. In the great water-beetle {Hydrophitus
piceus) the anus is iumished with two spinnerets, with
which it spins its egg-pouch^ ; these are in connexion,
probably, with the five long and large vessels containing
a gi^een fluid, described by Cuvier% which surround the
base of each branch of the ovaries. The larva of Mifr^
meleorij which also spins a cocobn with its anus, differs
remarkably in this respect from other insects, since its
reservoir fbr the matter of silk is the I'ectum * this is con-
nected with a homy tube, which the animal can pro-
trude, and thus agglutinate the silk and grains of sand
that compose its cococm ^

The web of i^iders is also a kind of silk remttrkabte
for its lightness and extreme tenuity. It is spun from
four anal spinnerets, which never vary in number : two
longer organs peculiar to some species have been mis-
taken Ibr additional ones, but Treviranus affirms that
they are merely a kind of aiiial feeler. Their structure,
as far as known, has been before descrfltaed ». The Vireb
is secreted in vteseis varying in form. In some ( CluMona
atroai) tfiey consist of two larger and two smaller ones,

• Anat. der Ins. 59. •» Ibid. 60. Malpigh. 20.

' Lyonnet Anat. 111. •* X Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xv. 483.

' Anal. Comp. v. 198. ^ Ramdohr, 60. /. xvii./. l./,g, /i, r.

* Vol. I. p. 404 — . Treviran. Arachnid, \2.

124? INTEUNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

at the base of which lie many still more minute*. The
four larger vessels are wide in the middle, branching at
top, and below terminating in a narrow canal leading to
the spinnerets*^. Treviranus thinks the fluid contained
in the lower minute vessels different from that furnished
by the larger ones — ^but for what purpose it is employed
has not been ascertained.

ii. Saliva^secretors {Sialisteria), These are organs,
rendering a fluid to the mouth or stomach, that are found
in many insects, especially those that take their food by
suction^ as the Hemiptei^a^ Lepidoptera^ and Diptera,
though they are not confined to the perfect insect, being
also in some cases visible in the larva. Swammerdam
was one of the first that discovered them, and he suspects
that they may be salival vessels ; though he, as well as
Ramdohr, thinks they are the same with the silJc vessels
of the caterpillar*^ ; an opinion which Herold has sufli-
ciently disproved, by showing that at one period of the
insect's life they co-exist**, and Lyonnet discovered a very
conspicuous pair in the caterpillar of tlie Cossus, co-ex-
istent with the silk-secretors ^ But the physiologist who
has given the fiiUest account of these organs is Ramdohr :
— I shall therefore extract chiefly from him what I have
further to communicate with respect to them.

They are variously constructed blind vessels, that are
present in almost all insects that take their food by suc-
tion^ but are mostly wanting in those that masticate it
They have been found, however, in Cryptarhynchus La-^
pathij Hemerobim Terla\ and Mm terrestris. The most

» Treviran. Arachnid, 43. t. iv./. 42. o. p. 9. ^ Ibid. «, y.

•^ Swamm. ii. 21. a. /. xxxvi./. 1. abed, Ramdohr, 58.

«» Schmet U iii./. 1. * Lyonnet—. 112. /. v./. 1. P, Q, R, S.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 125

usual number of the saliva-secretors is two^ ; but some-
times, as in the first of the last-named insects, there is
only one^ ; in others {Pentatoma Baccarum) there are
three^ the exterior one consisting of a pair of reservoirs
connecting with the gullet by a single capillary tube ^ ; in
Pentatoma prasina there appear to he Jour ^; in Nepa
cine7'ea, even six — the exterior double pair in this insect,
under a powerful lens, is found to consist of spherical
vesicles, resembling somewhat a bunch of currants*; and
in Shp'phiis arcuatus they are covered vfithfour rows of
similar ones ^, In the flea they consist of two pair of
spherical reservoirs, each of which is connected with a
short tube, which uniting with that of the other forms a
common capillary one connecting with the mouth or
gullet^ : these organs sometimes terminate below in
slender vessels ; — thus, inNepa^ the inner pair terminates
in a single vessel of tliis description^, and in Tabanus and
Hemerobius apparently in many*. It admits of a doubt
however, as was lately observed, whether in the Hemi-
ptera^ which have usually more than a jj^ir of these organs,
some are not vdLihevfood''re^ervoirs as m the Diptera.

The saliva-secretors open either into the instruments
oi suction themselves {Tabanus^ Musca) ; or into the en-
trance of the gullet {Pentatoma^ &c.) ; or, lastly, into that
o( the stomach {Syrpkus^ Bombylius). Those which lie at
the entrance of the stomach consist only of a blind uni-
form tube^\ but there is commonly to be distinguished in

* Raindohr Anat. t, xviii./. I, M.f, 5. F. •» Ibid. L x./. 1. m,
" Ibid. t. xxn.f. 3. ML. Ramdohr regards the double one as a

pair ; but as they terminate in a single tube, they ought to be reckoned
as one. ^ Ibid./. 4. * Ibid./. 2. K, L, M, 2i. t. xxiii./. 6,

f Ibid. 177. t. xxi./. 3. F. F. « Ibid./. 2. G, H.

* Ibid. U xxii./. 3. L. ' Ibid.t. xxi./. L O. /. xvii./. 6. w.
k Ibid. t. XX. /. G. D.

126 IN1*ERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

those thai open into the mouthy a resei-voir^ varying in
is^hape in different species, and terminating in a capillary
tube, or tubes, at one or both extremities*. In Bugs,
two pair of these vessels are often present, one of which
opens into the stomach (iZ^i^tit^m), or gullet {Pentaioma\
but the other into the instruments of suction^. In the
Diptera they open into the stomach when the insect fe^ds
only upon the nectar of flowers {Stp^phus)^ and into the
proboscis when it feeds upon both animal and vegetable
Juices ( TabanuSi Musca). The functi<Hi of the fluid se-
creted by these or^ns is to moisten or dilute the food
l)efore it is received by the instruments of siu^n and
passed to the stomach ^. When a common house-fly ap-
plies its proboscis to a piece of sugar, it is easy to see
that it moistens and dissolves it by some fluid.

iii. Varnish'-secretor (Colleterium). In butterflies,
moths, and several other insects, one or more vessels
called blind vessels open into the oviduct, concerning
the use of which, physiologists are npt agreed. In the
cabbage butterfly there is a pair of ovate ones, or rather
a bilobed one, each lobe of which externally terminates
in long perplexed convolutions, not easily traced, filled
with a yellow fluid, which Reaumur and Herold think
is used for varnishmg or gumming the eggs, so that they
may adhere to the leases on which they are deposited i
it may probably serve likewise for other uses^. Another
vessel is also to be fomid in the above butterfly, which
enters the oviduct above this, filled with a thick white
fluid, the function of which is, probably, to lubricate the

* Ramdohr Afiat. t xxii./. 1. K, L,f, 2. /, JT, L*

b Ibid./, :\ 4, 5. " Ibid, 57—. " Reaura. ii. 81. Ho,

rold i?j7?A p/ Plates, X. Mnlpitfh. /><• Bombyr. 3/, Plate XXX.

VlG, 12. r,

INTERNAL ANATOMV OF INSECTS. 12?

passage '. A similar organ is found in Phryganea gran^
disK

iv. Jelly-secretor {Corysterium). This is a remarkable
organ, related to the preceding, which secretes the jelly
of Trichoptera^ some Dtptera^ &c.; this organ in the for-
mer, at least in Phryganea gt^undis^ is of an irregular
shape, with four horns or processes^.

Poison-secretor {loterium). This organ, which is most
con^icuous in the Hymenoptera Order, has not received
much notice, except in the case of the Hive-bee and the
Scolia : in the former, it is an elliptical membranous
vesicle or reservoir, furnished at its lower extremity with
a tube which renders to the sting, and at th^ other by a,
Uind, longi filiform, secretory, vessel, which according to
Swammerdam divides into two terminal blind branches^,
thoi^b Reaumur could detect but one^\ in this vessel the
poison is secreted and stored up. In Scolia there are
two secretory vessels, which enter the reservoir in the
middle on each side ^. In the Scotpion^ we learn from
Marcel de Serres that the poison-secretor is clothed ex-
temally with a homy thickisb membrane, containing
two yellowish glands, composed of an inflnily of spheri.
cal glandules, terminating in a canal, enlarged towards
ks base so as to form a reservoir, and leading to the ex-
tremity of the sting ^. Connected by a slender tube vrith
each mandible in spiders is a vessel with spiml folds,
which seems propei'ly to belong to thi$ head — though

* Herold Ib^id. x. /. iv. f. I, p, u,y. Marcel dc Serres Mem, du
Mut. 1819. 141. »» Gaede AmL t. If. 3. d.

' /AfV/. 17. t. If. 4. *» Bibl. Xaf. t. xix./. 3. /3,

• Rcaqm. v. 377, /. xxix,/. 7, *. ^ -^^. I>icL d*Hist. Nat. xx)c,
a«8. « Jhid. 427—,

128 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Treviraiius calls it a saKtwj-vessel* — since in the Mygale
avicularia and other spiders, the effect of the bite is said
to be so venomous as to occasion considerable inflamma-
tion, and sometimes death ^.

y, Scentsecretors (Osmateria). Amongst other means
with which Insects are gifled for the annoyance of their
foes and pursuers, are the powerful scents which many of
them emit when alarmed and in danger. Concerning
the internal organs by which these effluvia are secreted
we possess but little information, but more notice has
been taken of the external ones by which they are emit--
ted. We may conclude in general, tliat the secretory
organs are membranous sacs or vesicles, perhaps termi-
natipg in longer or shorter blind filiform vessels, some-
times secreting a fetid fluid, and at others a fetid gaseous
effluvium. The lulidte^ at len&i lulus and Porcellio^, cover
themselves, when alarmed, with ajluid of this kind, or emit
one, for this faculty is not peculiar to the species noticed by
Savi. I observed early in the year, when I handled lulus
terrestris^ that it was covered with a slimy secretion, of a
powerful scent, which stained my fingers of an orange
colour. The spiraculiform pores that mark the sides of
the animal are the outlets by which this fluid is emitted,
and not spiraclesir as has been supposed : each of these
orifices, as we learn from Savi, terminates internally in
a black vesicle, which is tlie reservoir of the fluid**. The
most reiliarkable insect for its powers of annoyance in
this way, is one on that account called the homhardier

« Arachnid, 31. U ii,/. 51. ;>. 9. •' N. DkL d*Hisf, NaL xxii.

114. 117. comp. Vol. I. p. 127. " N, Diet. d*Hi^L xxviii. 6.

•• Osservnzioni, &c. 1 3 — .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 129

{BracAinus crepitans)^ which can fire numerous volleys
of stinking vapour at its assailants before its ammuni«'t
taon is exhausted^. M. Dufour has given a very parti-
cular account of the organ that secretes this vapour ;— it
consists of a double apparatus, one on each side, in the
cavity of the abdomen, both formed of two distinct ves->
sels. The J^rst^ which is the innermost, presents itself
under two different aspects, according as it is contracted
or dilated : in the former case it is a whitish, irregularly
rounded, soft body, apparently glandular, placed under
the last abdominal segments ; communicating at one end
with the reservoir, and terminating constantly at the
other in a very long and slender filament : in the second
case, or when it is dilated, it resembles an oblong, mem-
branous, diaphanous sac, filled with air, then occupying
the whole length of the abdomen, and appearing free
except where it communicates with the reservoir. The
second vessel or reservoir is a small, spherical, brown or
reddish body, constant in its form, internally hollow,
placed under the last dorsal segment, precisely above the
rectum, and opening by a small pore into the anus^ : so
that the tail of this little beetle may be regarded as a
battery mounted with two pieces of cannon, whidi bur
alert bombardier fires alternately without intermission
till all his ammunition is expended. The Carabi L« in
general have a pair of these anal scent-secretors, which
discharge an acrid and caustic fluid, and sometimes a vo-
latile one ^. The external organ of the scent-secretors in
Gyrinus consists of two minute hairy cylindrical retractile
tubes, of a red colour^. Numerous insects of other tribes

* Vol. IL p. 246. N. Diet, tPHi^. Nat, iv. 9(18. " Itnd. iv. 309.
' Ibid. V. ^52. ^ Dc Geier iv. m t xUi. / 9. w.

VOL. IV. K

ISO INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSfiCTS.

and genera emit scerUs fixMn their anus, and from varioiis
other pttrtsuof die body, of which hiitii^ before giv^i you
a very fuli aceouht^, I shall pr6ceed to the oonsideratiett
of the secretions themselves : but first I must ob$ert)^
that in many caeses^ as in some of the cottony and pom^
dery Aphides^ Chermes^ &c., the substance secreted ap^
pears to be a transpiration through the pores of the body,
a kind of excretion from the superabundance of its fluid
conteAts*^. In many, however, this fiecHsdon tnmspirtt
through appropriate orifices : thus in Aphis, Abietis^
which produces those curious galls resembling the con^
of a fir <^, theflocoons of seeming cotton that Cdver it pro^
ceed fi*om little oval concavities on its back, four of which
are arratiged in a transverse line on each dorsal s^iii6tit
:of the abdomen : these concavities have minute tuberckis
probably terminating in a pore^. In Aphis Fctgi the
cottony fiocooiis are almost an inch long^.

The secretions of insecis may be considered under the
ibllowixkg heads— '5i7£/ Saliva; Varnish or Qtan; JeUg;
Oils; Milk; Htmey; Wax; Poisons 2inA Acids; Odorous
Jluids aiid Vapours j and Laminous matter^

i. SiOe. This vahtable product of insects, while in the
.ftilk»secretor, assumes in the IjCpidoptera the appearanice
of a viscid gum, but the moment it is exposed to the ak*
it Hardens into a silken thread. It is remarkable for the
following qualities :-^it drie^ the instant it comes in con-
tact widi the air ; it is then insoluble not only in water
but in the most active solvents, and even heat has no eP-

» Vol. 11. p. 241—. III. p. 148—. ^ De Geer iii. 41,

... * Vol. I. p. 454, where, by miitake it is represented 'as die work
of A. Pinu •» De Geer iii. 11 1. * Reaiim. iii. t xx??./. 4—6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSKCT& 131

fiK!^ ^)o& itto mdil or soften it: indeed, without these
^latities it would be of no use to us*. As soon as it
l«tfi»es tiie ^umeret it becpmes the diread we call silk,
irtiieh being drawn through two orifices is necessarily
dm^e throu^ its whole length. This thread varies consi-
derabljrin oolour and texture, as has been before stated^,
and sometimes resembles cotton or wool rather than sijk.
In. ^di»?s it is of a much softer and more tender texture
tlom l^iat of other s^Hnning insects ; and Mr. Murray
sifiems to have proved that it is imbued, in the case of
the gossamer^ with negative electricity: in the sericteritm
the fluid that produces It is sometimes white or grey,
and at others yellow^. A remarkable gnat {Ceroplatm
tqndaides), living xm an agaric, carpets its station of
repose and its paths with something between silk and
varnish, which it spins, not in a thread, but in a broad
riband ^«

ii. Saliv(i. Many insects have the power of discharge
iag fiioin their mouth a fluid which seems in some degree
anal(^i]B to the saliva of larger animals. Thus many,
as Lepidoptei^a, Hemiptera, Diptera, &c., can dilute
&«r food, and render it fitter for degludtion. I have
seen a eomamsL fly wh^i not employed in eatings emit a
globule of fluid as big a& a grain of mustard-seed from
its proboscis, and retract it again* On a former occa-
sicm I observed to you that many predaceous, carnivorous,

* N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 305. »» Vol. III. p. 2«1— .

c Treviran. Arachnid, 44. In Paraguay a spidbr is found which
makes spherical cocoons of yellow silk, which are spun because. of
the permanence of the colour. This operatiot^ occasions a flow of
water from the eyes and nose of the spinners. Axara Voyag, 2IJ3.
See also Murray in Werner. Trans. IS^. 8—. * Reaum. v. 24.

k2

132 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECT6

and some herbivorous beetles, when alarmed emit a drop
of coloured acrid fluid from the mouth *. That this is not
secreted in any of the ordinary salival vessels is evident
. from Ramdohr^ dissections of those beetles^, who, had
there been such an organ, would doubtless have disco-
vered it : but as the stomach of all of them is distinguished
by those minute cceca or blind-vessels, which he denomi-
nates shags {zottenYi perhaps these may be the secretors
of this fluid, probably analogous to the gastric juice ^; in .
which case its primary ofiice would be the digestion of
the food. We are not however warranted in consider-
ing every fluid effused from the mouth as saliva. The
glutinous material with which wasps cement the woody
fibres for their paper edifices*; that with which some .
sand-wasps moisten the sand which they scrape away, .
of which they form the singular tubes that lead to their
nests ^ ; and that with which the aphidivorous larvae fix .
themselves previously to their becoming pupae ^, — ^may be
a secretion distinct from saliva ; possibly intermediate be-
tween it and gum or the matter of silk, and secreted by
peculiar organs. In the wasp, however, Ramdohr dis-
covered nothing of the kind^; and in Syrpkus, as before
observed, the saliva-secretors are very peculiar in their
, structure, as if appropriated to the secretion of a peculiar
fluids Something similar has been observed by Heau-

» VoL^ II. p. 247—. *» Ramdohr Anai, i, ii.— vi,

' Ibid. 20. See above, p, 101. As some of the ^aluteria render

^o the stoinach (see above, p. 125), there seems no siqall affinity be*

^ween these shags and those organs.

* Cuv. AnaU Comp. iv. 132, 136,

• Reaum. vi. Pref. xxviii. 177—, ' Ibid. 263^. .

» md, Si, 375 ^ Anat. L xii./. 6. * im. va.f. 3. / /

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF lN6£CT:i. ISS

Biur with regard to the larva of Criocerts merdigefOj
which forms its cocoon with a kind of froth produced
from the mouth*.

iii. Famish or Gum. The eggs of various insects, when
they leave the oviduct, are covered with a kind of var-
nish or gum by which they adhere to the substances
that the young larvae are to feed upon, or are placed in a
-proper position for their hatching in an appr(^riate sta-
tion* Several instances of this have been already men-
tioned I* ; I shall therefore hot enlarge further upon the
subject. With regard to the secretion itself, little has
been recorded except its colour^ which has been before
noticed. Some Leptdoptera also, as we learn from
Reaumur and Bonnet^, use a varnish in the construction
of their cocoons.

iv. Jelly ov Gluten. This secretion is particularly con*
spicuous in the Trich&ptera and some Dipterci^ sierving
as a bed or nidus for those eggs that are committed to
the water, — upon which I have nothing to add to what
has b£en before said^. Under this head also may be
noticed the fluid, secreted in pecidiar vesicles, that lubri-
cates the oviduct and the passages of the sexual or-
gans ^.

v^ OUs. Oily substances ate sometimes produced by
insects. The common oil-beetle {Meloe Proscarabaus)
when touched sends forth a drop of this kind of fluid, of
an orange colour, from each joint of its legs ^ : something
similar I have observed in CoccineUa bipunctata : Ray

* Reauin. iu. 230. «» Vol, III. p. 78—.

«= Reauin. iii. ^l.**. Bonnet ix. 182. * Vol. III. p. 68—

^ Marcel de Serres Mem. du Mut. 1819. 133, 141.
f Dc Gccr, V. 6.

134 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INS£CT$.

mentions a locust taken in Spain whidi emits a yeHour
Meaginous fluid from betweien the claws of its fore legs ^^
but the precise nature of these substances ha^ not bew
ascertained, nor whether they are si;creted by peculiar
ocgans.

vi Milk. A milky fluid is produced by the larva of
Chrysomela Popidu Willughby observed a similar efiidf-
sion from pores in the upper sur&ce of the body -of ActF-
lifts cinereus s and other insects emit it from other pai*|s
of dteir body^.

vii. Honey. It is certain that honey is not an anitnc^l
secr^ion ; yet the sacchttrine matter collected from the
nectaries of flowers, from which it is derived, seem^ to
undergo some a/^i?ra^£cm in the ^stomach; for the <;onsi^t-
ence of honey is greater than that of a^y v^^ge^atile ni&c*
tar, aitd its taste does not vajry greatly, ^hUe tiia|; of the
nectar in di£fer^H pltots is prc^b^ i^ot ithie saiae.
Reaumur also has <)bserved, that each honey^rcell in a
bee-hiye is always covered 'by a caream-like layer of a
thicker consi3teoce than the rest, which apparent^ ^ervqs
to prevent the more liquid honey, which from time to
time is introdu^d under it, from running put^. Now
if honey were the unaltered nectar of plants, it is difEcult
to Qcmceive how this cream could be collected in proper
proportions. The btst^mention^ naturalist likewise ai^
yqeHtf^ledi tb^t if bees, ma season in which the fields a^
ford a scaireity of food, be siij^lie^ with mj^ar^ diey w^l
from tim subst&noe fill #eir .cjells with hon^ w^ich dif^
fers in no respect from the common sort, except that its
flavdur'is a little heightened^ : — a simillLr argument may

• Rai. Hitt:ins..m. » Vol. II. p. 245,^1. Rai. Mist.

Int. 94, 382. •= Rcaum. v. 448. * IM. v. 73«.

INT£RNAL ANATOMY OF INJECTS. 135

be dedaced from the circumstance of the bees i^lbihi^ff
the juices oijruits of various kinds as l^ey ar^ wdl knowi^ ;
to do^. It seems therefore evident that the honey edi*
lected by bees undergoes some modification i^ their ^or
ney-stomach before it is regur^tated into the cells,. a|id '
therefore may be regarded in some degree as a pecuiiiii
secretion.

Huber says that he has ascertained by a grieat nutil-
ber of observations that electricity is singularly favour*
£^le to the secretion of the substance of which hoi^ey is
formed by ilowers; the bees never collect it in greater
abundance^ nor is the formation of wax ever mor^ active,
than when the wind is in the south, iht air humid an^d
warm, and a storm gathering^.

viii. Wax generally tc^spires through the pores of
the skin of those inserts, that produce ^t, either partially
or gwerally, and it is secreted irom honey or ottier sa.<>
charine substances taken into the stomach. In the hive-
bee, as has been before stated, it is pr9|duced partiallij/^j
but in many other insects it is a general transudation of
the body. This is particularly the case with ^a larg^
number of the Homopterpus Hfmiptera; aQd jljb^e Ho-
coQUs that look like cotton, BSfA coyer tb^ body of s^y^
ral Chermes and Aphides^ if closely examined will t^
^.un4 of the jQftture (ffwup; thi^ I have particularly lu^
tic^ vi^ith respect to Chermes Fagfp in whj^ch the f ott^n^
lik^e fipcQQns ^e oi^n so long as tp caysi^ t^e ^c^ct ^to
l^qk Uke t^ feather, and & 1^ ^^ered l^y ;^f;nx.e3^i)3^ts a
vjsry six^lar a{)pe^aiioe,ia£ i^ clodded yi^ t|i^ ^v\e4pyn^
rf a swfp **• JProl^ably .thp ]y hiite powder or t^Tis^4^ ttot,

' Vol. L p. 194. ILp. 179. " Encyclop. Britan, viii. £05.

from Jour* de Fh^9. "" Vol. II. p. Ji78.

^ Reauip. iii. 3J8 — . ^. xxvi./. 1-^6.

136 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

appear to transpire through the skin of many other in-
sects is of a waxy nature. In the larva of a beetle de-
scribed by Reaumur, the iiocoons are so arranged as to
give the animal some resemblance to a hedgehog, and
when rubbed off they are reproduced in twelve hours*.
Gyllenhal, speaking ofPeltis limbata^ observes, that when
alive it is covered with a white powder resembling mould,
which if rubbed off returns again as long as the animal
lives**.

It will not be improper to include under this head
what further account I have to give of Lac^ which though
regarded as a resin^ since Cocci sometimes certainly pro-
duce *max^^ probably has some analogy with the latter
substance. When the females of this Coccus (C. Laced)
have fixed themselves to a part of the branch of the
trees on which they feed (Ficus religiosa and indicoj
Butea frondosa^ and Rhamnus Juji(ba^% a pellucid and
glutinous substance begins to exude from the margins
of the body, and in the end covers the whole insect with
^ cell of this substance, which when hardened by expo-
sure to the air becomes lac. So numerous are these in-
sects, and so closely crowded together, that they often
entirely cover a branch ; and the groups take diflerent
shapes, as squares, hexagons, &c., according to the
^ace left round the insect which first began to form its
cell. Under these cells the females deposit their eggs,
which after a certain period are hatched, and the young
ones eat their way out. Though indisputably an animal
secretion, many of the properties of lac are not very
diflerent from those of the juices of the trees on which

* Reaum, iii. 396—, ^. xxxi./. 20—29. '^ Insect, Suec i, 257.
' Vol. I. p. 326, •» N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvii. 189.

INT£1INAL ANAtOMY OF IKSrci'S. 187

the animal feeds, and which therefore would seem to un-
dergo but little altetsition^

Wax seems also to form a cotistituetit part of some
insects which are not fdutid to secrete it The yellow
substance deposited in vessels containing spiders in al-
cohol is said to be a true wax, and may be obtained from
these animals by gently heating them*.

ix. Poisons and Acids. The bite as well as the sting
of many insects is followed by inflamed tumours, so that
the sialisteria of some bugs^ Diptera, Aptera^ and spiders,
may be regarded as producing a poisonous fluid ; but we
know nothing of the real nature of it, nor of that of other
venomous insects, except the ant — whose celebrated acid
may be considered under the present head, — the bee^ the
waspj and the scorpion.

Contrary to the once received doctrine that no acid
was to be found in any animal, except as the efiect of
disease in the alimentary canal^ many insects secrete pe-
culiar and powerful ones. I have on a former occasion
related an instance in which an acid of this description,
secreted in its sialisteria^ is employed by a moth to soften
its cocoon ^ ; and Lister mentions a species of Itdus which
produced one resembling that of ants^ ; but this last is
the most powerful of all. The fact that blue flowers
when thrown into an ant-hill become tinged with red has
been long known ; but Mr. Fisher of Sheffield, about
1670, seems to have been the first who ascertained that
this effect is caused by an acid with which ants abound,
and which may be obtained from them by distillation or
infusicm in water **. Margraff and other chemists con-

• Nicholson's Jaum, i. 298-. •» Vol. III. 283.

<^ PhUos. Trans. 1670. " IM. Ray's Lett. 74,

18S IKTEANAL ANATOMY OF INSECT^n

firmed t;bis discovery ^; and concluding that this acid was.
of a peculiar kind, they gave it the name of the Formie
acid. This name, however, is now exploded ; the subse-
quent experiments of Deyeux, Fourcroy and Vauquelin
having ascertained that the acid of ants is not of a di-
stinct kind, but a mixture of the Acetic and Malic^.
These acids are in such considerable quantities, and so
concentrated in these animals, that, when a number of
Formica ntfa are bruised in a mprtar, the vapour is so
sharp that it is scarcely possible to endure it ^.t a short di-
stance. It also transpires &om them, for they leave traces
of it on the bodies which they traverse : and hence^ ac-
cording to the experiments of Mr. Coleridge, the vulgar
notion that ants cannot pass over a line. of chalk is cor-
rect ; the effervescence produced by the contact of the
acid and alkaline being -so considerable, as in some de-
gi:ee.to burn their legs^. The circumstance of much of
^e food of ants being of ,^ saccharine nature may ac-
count for .this cppious secretion of acid^ .t;he u^e of which
is .probably to ^efend themselves a^d their habitations
^^wppithe attac;k and intrusipn of their enemies : if a frog
lie j]|utinto ai^est pf ^(srm/ca rz^that ha^ been der^ged^
it ^U be ^u^ocated in five ,nunutes**. That which they
yoffdate 4rom their anus when f).tt£^ked, as fonperly
sta|^^^ njiu^t.be secreted in an ioteriunii but tjbeirvery^
i/opf? seems of an acid nature. It is very probable, a^s
Dr. prhpmson hap observed^ that acids mav be olf^
tf^^ed irom mapy other insects, and that tbey are vf^ripiis
modifications of the acetic.

* Amorciix Ins, Vemm, 236—. ^ N. Diet: d* Hist, ^at. xii. 94.
« Southey's BrazU, i. 645. ^ iV. Diet. d'£(ist. Nat, ubi supr.

« :VoL. II. p.,|fp. f Syst. 'of Ch0ipiisL 533.

INT£RNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 1S9

From the circumstance that water is absorbed by
greasjf moths, that crystals of a salt are occasionally
£Mmd adhering to them, that they change blue litmus
paper red, — it has been inferred that their supposed oili^
ness as in &ct an acid or acid salt, having the property of
aiJCradang moi^iture from the air, the infected moths be-
iag in &ct not gareasy, but iioetj hence the. application of
chalk Mid clay, usnally recommended in this case, can
have only a tempcurary and superfiiaal eflfect. The only
^dfectnal remedy, 4s steeping the body in spirits of wine
tiU aH the acid is extracted ^. This acid is probably the
same as Chaussier obtained from silk-wormsi) since called
Mombic AddK

The ^poison of bees and watps, as to its chemical qqar
•lities, is a transparent fluid, ^at first sweet to the ta^t^
!bi|t immediately a&erwards hot and acrid like rthe milky
juioe of Ibe qntrge^ ; soluble in water, but notin akol^ol;
•and: sspasf hb frcnn the former in the state ;of wtii^ ']po^i-
^der, ^hen the latter is added (giwtg a sli^jt red tipge to
ipaper stamed i«dth ^egetaUe bine, and whei) dry and
chewed appearing tenacious, gummy and ^astic Thi/s
kst> property, as well as soItlbUityin vtscater ^4 n<^ hi
4ileo(bol, is common. also tD ibe>poison4>fith^ C'gpfr, Tsb^ch
howiever di&rsiin <being. tasteless,. a^ i|ie^ aff^c^^ ve.
getaUe blues. From hence jFontana.eQndudeiS t^jt.tbis
iflmdi iamnited iwith an add, but in a vttrgr sm^ll p^<)pqrr
ition^^mdnot vihh. on .alimli^* The vt^QQi (Of l^iees j^
•eKtEemdy active; a. grain in .weight, it i^ ^copjectur^^
would kill a pigeon in a few seconds ^. It is remarkable,

» Germar Mag. der Ent. 445—. ^ Menu XHjm 17a3. ii. 7Q.
' Reaum. v. 3^4. ** (hi Pomns^ i. 266—.

' Ibid, 269.

/

140 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

however, th^t while in some constitutions the sting of a
single bee or wasp is sufficient sometimes to induce
alarming symptoms, in others numerous punctures will
produce little or no pain or inflammation. That this
fluidj and not the puncture of the sting, is the sole cause
of the inflammation that usually follows the wound in-
flicted by one of these animals, is proved by the facts,
that if it be introduced into one made by a needle, the
same eflfect ensues, and that when the whole contents of
the poison-bag have been exhausted by the insect's sting-
ing three or four times in succession, its weapon then
becomes harmless \

The venom of scorpions^ though much more potent,
probably resembles that of bees, &c., in many of its che-
mical qualities : it issues from two pores in the sting be-
fore described^) where, when the animal is irritated, it
accumulates under the form of two little drops of a
whitish colour; spread upon paper this fluid {uroduces a
spot like what would be caused by oil or grease, and this
part of the paper becomes by desiccation firmer and
transparent^.

X. Odorous J^uids and Vapxmrs^. The powerful scents
which different insects emit are extremely numerous,
much more so indeed than the generality of Entomolo-
gists have been aware, for there is scarcelya scent odious
or agreeable that may not be met with in the insect
world. This you will be convinced of, by following a
practice which I would recommend to you — that of smell-

' Reaiim. M twpr. " Vol. I. p. 124. III. p. 717—.

« N, Diet d'Hist Nat. xxx. 427.

<* I use the term odorous, not in the same sense as odoriferous, but
to include both sweet anil fetid scents.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. lil

ing the insects you take. Some of these scents are pe-
culiar to particular parts or organs, and some are ex*
haled generally by the whole body; some are emitted
by a iltiid secretion, and others are gasfeous effluvia. On
a former occasion I gave you a rather full account of
these scents and their organs^ ; I shall relate here only
what I there omitted. To begin with sw^e^ odours. Many
beedes emit an agreeable sc^fit. Tiie ro^e-scented Ca^,
pricom or musk- beetle {Ctzllickroma moschatum) ha$ long
been noted for the delicious scent of roses which it ex-
hales ; this is so powerful as to fill a whole apartment,
and die insect retains it long after its death. Captain
Hancock also informed me that another species of the
same genus, CaUickrama sericeum, has in a high degree
a scent resembling that of the cedar ^ on which they feed.
Though most of the micropterous tribes {Siaphylinus L.)
h«9e ajefid smell, yet there are some exceptions to this
amongst them. One species (& suaveolens K, M.S.) re-
lated to 5. micans Gray., which I once took, smelt pre-
cisely like^ fine high-scented ripe pear; another, Oxy^
tehis morsitans, like the water-lily ; a third, O. rugQstiS^
like water-cresses ; and lastly, a fourth {S.fuscip€s\ like
safiton^ : Trichius^ EremUaj one of the Lamellicoms, is
stated to have the scent of Russia leather ; Get^rupes o^-
nalis, in spite of its stercorarious food, of lavender-wa*
ter^. Mr. Sheppard has observed that Djftiscus margu
rialis when recently taken smells not unlike liquorice :
Bonnet mentions a caterpillar that had the scent of new

Vol. II. p. 241—. Ill, p. 148—,
** A Brazilian M^ood so called, but differing from the common cedar.
" Dothardtng Insect, Coleopt, Danic,
^ Sturm DdtU^ch, Fn, i, 2/.

142 IITTERNAL ANATOMY OF I)^S£CT8.

hay. A little. gall*fly (Cynips Q^rcus Ramdi h^) has
the remafkAbie odour of Fraxkiella : the Urv« of anotbor
species of this genus (C. Mosa) has on odoar which
seemed to Reaumur as attractive to cats as. that' of ^^^
peta cataria or Teucrium Marum^i somePiala^ia amell
like walnut leaves^ ; and the various specter of the ge-
nus Prosopis {Melitta * b. k*) have a very agreeable scent
ijX Bracotepkalum fnoldavicumK

; . We next come tojeiid odours. These in numei^Uis
dSfeses ate known to be secreted and emitted by appro*
priate vessels and organs ; they aire often exhaled from i^
fiaid secretion, of which^ in the letter lately referred U^
I gave you almost all the known instances* Savi» In his
history of lulus fcetidimnmsj informs us that it emit^ a
yellow fetkl fluid from its supposed spiracles^ which if ^-
plied in sufficient quantity inqiarts a red colour to the
skin» to be removed ndther by fricticm nor washing, \hA
acSy disappearing by time; wha^ removed &om the bhi^k
vesldes in which it is stored, it shootsr intio v^ tr$iph'
parent fOCtoedral crystsdsS

I have before mentioiied the coloured fluid which same
insects emit when they are disdosed from the pup^
and that it probably exhales some powerful odour which
attriEJLCts the males ^.

The great HydropMlus^ tn its larva state, when jSrst
taken into the hand remains without moticMi; .in a^i*
nute afterwards it renders itself so flaccid as to appear
like a cast i^in. Taken by the tail it contracts itself
considerably, it then agitates itself briskly, and ejaculates
with a slight noise a fetid and blackish fluid ^

» Reaum. iii. 494. »» Mon. Ap, AngL i. 136.

* Osservaz, stillo lulus, <Jt. 14, <• Vol. III. p. ^9.

• N, Diet. tTHMt. Nat. xv. 4S7.

INTJEHNAL AN^ATOMY OF iNS£CT& HS

in otbcsr eases these odours Arerprodoced: by gaseous
mp&urs, ThaEt of the Bombai-diers (Brachinu^) ih thc^
most ceiebrsted and remarkable. It is whitish^ of »
powerful and stimulating odour, very like thai exhaled
by nitrous acid. It is caustic, {Mrodncing upon the skin
the sensation of burning, and forming instantly upon it
red spots which soon turn brown, and which, in spite of
frequent lotteois, remain several days. It turns blue pa-^
per veA^. That amiable^ intelligent, and unfortunate
traveller Ml*. Ritchie,«^whose premature death when at-
tempting to penetrate to the interior of Africa all lovers
of Natural History so deeply lamented, and whose ardour
in the pursuit of that science I had an opportunity of
witnessing, when, iii company with him, Messrs. Savigny,
Du Fresne, and W. S. MacLeay in 1817, 1 visited the
&H*est of Fontainebleau, — ^in a letter to the last-^mentioned
gentleman^, relates that bis companion M» Dupont, neat
Tripoli took a nest consisting of more than a thott$aii4
of a species of this genus* '^ I am making a few ^peri»
jQents," says he, ^^ on the subs^aaee which they emit
when they crejtttate, but dfi^nc^t kftow whether I can cdl*>
lect enough to fomsH^ at any conclusion. It made Dti*
pont's &ig«»!t entirely black when he toc^ them. It is
neiter alkaline nor acid, and it is soluble in water and
In al<5ohol." Frcrni this we may conjecture that it formed
crystals^ ^

xi. Phosphorusi Cki this remarkable secretion I have
so ftdly enlarged oh a former occasion % that here I shall
merely add a few observations which Mr. Murray oldig*

» Ibid. IV. 308.

♦ thftcd /Twpoli in the West, January t\ , ISI».

« V<H.. n. p. 4)23--.

144 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ingly communicated to me. He remarks that in a box
in which glow-worms were kept — ^five luminous specks
were found secreted by the animal, which seemed to glow
and were of a different tinge of light. One put into olive
oil at eleven p. m. continued to yield a steady and unin-
terrupted light until five o^clock the following morning,
and then seemed, like the stars, to be only absorbed by
superior efiulgence. The luminous spherical matter of
the glow-worm is evidently enveloped in a sac or capsule
perfectly diaphanous, which when ruptured discloses it
in a liquid form, of the consistency of cream. M. Ma-
caire, he observes, in the Bibliotkeque UniverseUe^ draws
the following conclusions from experiments made on the
luminous matter of this animal ; — ^that a certain degree
of heat is necessary to their voluntary phosphorescence
— ^tliat it is excited by a degree of heat superior to the
first, and inevitably destroyed by a higher — that bodies
which coagulate albumen take away the power — ^that
phosphorescence cannot take place but in a gas contain-
ing no oxygen — that it is not excited by common elec-
tricity, but is so by the Voltaic pile — and lastly, thai
the matter is chiefly com{x>sed of albumen^

xii. Fat TTiere is one product fovmd in the body of in-
sects most copiously in their larva state, but more or (ess
also in the imago^ which may be called their Jat. In the
former it is a many-lobed mass, occupying the whole of
the interior, except the space that is required for the
muscles and the internal organs, which it wraps round
and protects. It is contained in floating membranes, ^,
very numerous, which All all the interstices, and assuihe.
the appearance sometimes of small globules, and some-
times of a thickish mucilage, which easily melts and in-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 145

flames ; in colour it is most commonly white, but some*
times yellow or green. It is imagbed to be a kind of
epiploon or caul, and is accumulated in the larva as a
store of nutriment for the growtli and development of the
organs of the perfect insect while in the pupa state*.
The blood in which the different organs float that is
not required for their nutriment, is supposed to be ex-
pended in the formation of this substance. Marcel de
Serres is of opinion that it is secreted from the chyle by
passing through the pores of the dorsal vessel, formerly
called the heart of insects**.

Under this head I may mention what little is known with
regard to the perspiration of these animals ^. That a con-
siderable quantity of fluid passes ofl* from them when in
the pupa state, is sufliciently proved by the loss of weight
which they undergo, and by the experiments of Reaumur,
who collected the fluid in closed glass tubes ; and that in
their perfect state they are constantly passing ofi^ per-
spirable matter by the pores of their skin or crust, is not
only rendered probable by the succulent nature of their
food and the absence of any urinary discharge, but is
proved by what takes place in a swarm of bees. These
insects, when crowded together in hot Weather in a large
mass, become heated to such a degree^ and perspire so
copiously, that those near the bottom are quite drenched
with the moisture it produces, which so relaxes ' their
Mrings that they are unable to fly**.

* ReaaiD. i. 145. Lyonnet Anat. 106—. N, IhcL d^Hitt, Nat,
xvi. i24. Px-ATE XXI. Fig. 5. a. *» See above, p. 89. note \
« See above, p. 78. * Ruber i. 273.

VOL. IV.

LETTER XLIL

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

REPRODUCTION.

1 HE reproductive organs of insects in their general de-
nominations and functions correspond with those of the
higher classes of animals; but as to number , proportions^
and other particular details of their structure, they diflFer
from them very considerably. I shall not now, however,
enter at large upon this subject, but confine myself prin-
cipally to the consideration of those organs in the female
which are appropriated to the formation, fecundation,
maturation, exclusion and deposition of their eggs, and
other circumstances relating to that subject The or-
gans connected with this function are ^eSperm^reservoir ^
the Oviducts the Ovaries ^ and the Ovipositor.

I. The Sperm-reservoir (Spermatheca) is an organ con-
necting the vagina with the oviduct, which, according to
Herold, receives the male sperm as into a reservoir*, and
fecundates the eggs in their transit through that passage.
This vessel, lyhich consists of a double tunic, in the cab-
bage-butterfly terminates the vagina, and is connected

» Heroic! SchmefihL Cab. expl. vii.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTJS, 147

with the oviduct by a lateral undulating tube : in shape
it is a rather irregular oblong, and is surmounted by a
SBdall orbicular vesicle, connected by a short tubular foot-
stalk with the main reservoir^. A similar organ was dis-
cov^ed by Malpighi in the imago of the silk-worm, who
d^ipminates it the uterus ; to which indeed it seems ana-
logous, and which he also regards as a reservoir for the
sp^rm for the gradual fecundation of the eggs*'. But in
that fly die organ is of a rather different shape, and the
interior vessel terminates in several spherical vesicles^.
It is aot improbable that in those insects whose eggs are
gradually laid, this provision for their gradual fecunda-
ti^i) if carefully sought for, might be detected^. Rif-
ferschweils is of opinion, that in these cases the eggs
are fertilized in their transit through the oviduct by
sperm adhering to the folds of the cloacce^ : but this
c^inion seems less analogous to what taked. place in other
cases, with regard to the due preparation of the eggs for
a salk and effectual transit^.

^ Herold SchmeUerk L iv./. ]. or. &c; Plate XXX. Fig. 12. d.

»» Be Bombt/c. 36. "^ Ibid. t. xii./. 1. 1, and/. 2. O. M.

^ Swammerdam, in dissecting the female of Oryctes jumcomitf dis-
covered a blind*yessel opening^ into the vagina, and at the other or
iBiier extremity not terminated by any secretory tube, containing
a yellowish matter, that seems analogous to the organ mentioned
in the text; and in theliive-bee he found a similar organ covered
with air-vessels, which he supposes to be connected with the CoUc"
terium (see above, p. 1^6.], and which he states to contain a slimy
matter. Bibl. Nat. i. 151. b. U xxx. /. 10. g. 204. b. U xxix./. 3. t.
P^haps likewise the organ discovered by M. L. Dqfour in Sco&a,'^
which he imagines to belong to the poison-secretor, and which he
describes ^ a sac consisting of a double tunic, the exterior one mus-
cular and the interior membranous, and filled with a blueish-green
gelatinous matter {N, Diet, d^Hist. Nat. xxx. 388.)— may be a tper*
matheca. * De Jntector. Genital. 17.

f \ allude.to those organs above described (p. 126.) for the secre»

l2

14S INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

II. The Oviduct {Ovidtictzis) is the canal, always se-
parate from the vagina, which receives the eggs from the
ovary, transmitting them, often by a peculiar and com-
plex instrument in which it terminates, to their proper
station. This canal sometimes opens into the anal pass-
age or cloaca^ and at others, as in the cabbage-butterfly *,
is distinct, and lies between die sexual organ and the
the anus. In the Arachnida there are two oviducts**.

III. The Ovaries {Ovaria) in insects are the viscara
in which the eggs are generated and grow till they ar-
rive at maturity, when they pass through the ovidoct,
and are extruded or deposited in their appropriate sta-
tion. They vary considerably in their structure. In aU
however, except the hdid/e^ in which there is only a
single ovary *^, the oviduct at its upper or inner extremity
terminates in two branches, usually further subdivided
into a number of smaller conical ones, which several isa^
mifications constitute the ovaries^ or egg-tubes as they
are sometimes called : these tubes generally consist of a
single membrane, and are joined to the oviduct by mem-
branous rugose cloacce^ : in the Pkalangia, however,
there are two tunics ; the outer one of a cellular substance,
and the inner one consisting of spiral fibres like trachea
— a kind of structure which renders them capable of great

tion of matter for varnishing the eggs or lubricating the oviduct. It
seems most probnble, if the fecundation of the eggs takes place gra-
dually, that upon their passing into the oviduct, a special reservoir
should be appropriated to the reception of the male spem), adapted to
maintaining in due activity the vivifying principle, or aura seminalk,

* Herold Schmett. t, ivlf, 2. m n.

^ Treviran. Arachnid, 36. t. iv. /. S2. aa. Marcel de Serres in
ikfm. du Mus, 1819. 89.

" Marcel d6 Serres, Mem, du Mus. 1819. 115.

^ Rifferschw. De Genital, Ins, 1 1 ,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 149

extension ^. Rifferschweils considers theovaries as formed
upon two primary types. — Firstyjlagelliform ovaries, con-
sisting of conical tubes equal in length, and inserted at
the same place at the end of the primary branches as in
the Lepidaptera; the Bee, &c. Secondl^^ racemose ovaries,
consisting of short conical tubes, so proceeding from the
primary branches as to render the ovary racemose or
pinnated, as in certain Neuropteruy Coleoptera^ and Z)f-
pUra^ : but perhaps their structure will be better un-
derstood if they are divided into aggloma^ate ovaries
and branching ovaries : in the^r^^ the egg-tubes form
two bundles, in which the branches are not discernible,
85 in the Ephemera^ the chameeleon-ily, and spiders^;
and in the second the branches are. distinct, as in the
Lepidjoptera and the majority of insects.

The number of branches varies in different genera and
species. InJSc^momyiagro5£a,alargefly, there areonlythe
^wo primary branches^; in the common dung-beetle (G^o-
irupes stercorarim) these appear divided at their apex into
fingers^: in Scolia^ a Hymenopterous genus, and the
butterfly of the nettle, there are three secondary branches
on each side ^ : in many othei: Lepidoptera and the hum-
i ble-bee there wt^four^ ; in the common louse there are
Jkte^ ; in the rhinoceros-beetle and the cockchafer, six'^ ;
iiL the wasp seven^ ; eight in the cockroach' ; twelve in

* Marcel de Serres in Mem, du Mm. 1819. 109.

*» Rifierschw. ubi swpr. 23 — . Plate XXX. Fig. 12. a. Swamin".
mL Nai. t. xlii./. 8. a,/, g, h. « Ibid. I 104. t. xv./. 3. ii. 62.

/. xii./. 8. Treviran. Arachnid, t. iv./. 32. ^ Reaum. iv. 391.

• Posselt Anat, der In*, t. If. 28, 29. ' JNT. Diet. d'Hist.
I Not. XXX. 387 — . Swamm. ubi mpr, ii. 23. t. xxxv./. 3.

! » Ibid. i. 203. »» Plate XXII. Fig. 2.

' Swamin. %dn supr, i. 151. Gaede Anat. der Ins. t. ii./. 3,
k Swamm. i. 203. ' Gaede 20. t. i./ 9.

1-50 INTERNAL ANATOMY OP INSECT'S.

the Cctrabi and the ihealworm-beetle* ; thirty in the
large green grasshopper (^cr/^ viridissima^) ; tkirfy-
htfo in the cheese»maggot-fly*^ ; and in the hiv0-bee
more than a hundred andjifiy^,

TTie number of e^t also <x>ntained in the ovaries
taries. In Echinomyiu grossa there is oiily one ^g in
each, and only ttm at oncie in the matrix * : in another
fly produced by the cheese-maggot there BxefGUr^i
in the louse there SLte^fioe; in the cockchafer sia:^; m
flie hive-bee sixteen Or seventeen are visible at the same
thne** ; and in the silk- work moth sixty or sevenfyK Be-
sides the eggs, the tubes contain a pellucid mucus, sad at
tJiidr upper extremity the ^gs are lost in a granulfir
mucous mass, in Mrhichi however, they may still be dis-
cbvered with a microscope^. Widi regfettd to the ter-
mination of the ovaries or egg-tubes intemaUy, — ^in those
that have agglomerated ones it is hot to be traced, the
whole appearing like ah oblong obtuse or acutie body* •
but in the branching ones it is; more iBasily traced ; at fitsl
they Converge in most cases to k point ; <his is se&a to
advantage in the caterpillar of some buttei'fiies^ when
near aissuming the pupa, ih which they are re^ly db^
covered, and represent with great truth and elegance the
bud of some blossom"^ ; but in time they diverge, afid
sometimes become convoluted"; they generally termi-
nate in a slender simple filament, but in the louse in a
fork**; they are sometimes extremely long, as in the

» Gaede Anae. der Int. ^6, ^8. t ii./. 10. " ISUL M.

"^ Swamm. H. 74. ^ IM. 203. /. xix./. 3.

• Reaum. tv. 391—. f Swamm. /. xlni./. 19. « Gaede 22.
«» Swamm. BlbL Nat. i. 203. * im. * Riffewchw. 11—.

» Swamm. t. xlii./. 8. Gaede. t. i./. 3. cc.
» Herold. SchmeU. t. v./ 10, 12. ° Pt^ate XXX. Fig. 12.

« Plate XXII./. 2. h.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IN8ECTS. 151

w|i$p and Lepidaptera^ i in the hive-bee they appear to
be shorter**.

.IV. We are next to consider the Ooipositovj or instru«-
ment by which numerous insects are enabled to intro^
dnce their eggs into their appropriate situations, and
where the new-born larva may immediately meet with
its destined food. As this instrument is one of the most
striking peculiarities with which the wisdom of the Cre-^
ATOR has gifted these little animals, and in many cases is
extremely curious and wonderful, both in its structure
and modes of operation — though on a former occasion I
gave you a brief account of several kinds of them^, I
ahall now enter more at large into the subject, and de^
scribe these often complex machines, as they are exhi*
bited in most of the different Orders of insects.

With regard to the Cdeoptera Order, there are doi?bt«
less iiiumerotts variations in the structure of this organj
but very few have been noticed, and those chiefly belong
to insects whose grubs feed on timber. In these it is
usualfy retractile one part within another, like the pieces
pi ^, telescope : in Buprestis it consists of three long
and sharp tamina^ the two lateral ones forming a sheath to
the intermediate one, which probably conveys the eggs^ :
in JElafer it fe a cylindrical organ, terminating in a pair
of conical joints, which seem to form a forces, and in-
cluding a tube probably conveying the egg to the for-
o^Si which perhaps introduces it^. The Ovipositor of
Prionm coriaritis differs from that of CaUtdium violas
ceum, and many Capricoms before described ^: it consists
merely of a long bivalve piece ending in a kind of for-

» Swamm. «. xix./. 4. b. ^ Ibid.f. 3. *= Vol. I. p. 353^.
<* De Gecr iv. 127. t iv./. 17. ' IM. 143. t. v./. 15.

f Voi» I. p. 355.

152 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ceps, and hollowed above into a channel for the passage
of the eggs*.

In the Orthoptera the instrument of oviposition is more
simple ; in Locusta Leach, consisting merely of four ro-
bust three-sided pieces, two above and two below, the
former pair at the end curving upwards and the latter
downwards**, these pieces seem calculated when they
have entered the earth to enlarge the burrow, and the
animal appears able to separate them very widely from
each other *^. The ovipositor ofAcrida viridissima, which
like that of many Hymenopterous insects forms a kind
of appendage or tail to the body, has been described
both by De Geer and Latreille as consisting of tiw valves
only^ ; but in reality it consists of Sf>, two upper and four
lower, as you may ascertain by means of a pin or the
point of a penknife, which will readily separate them.
This is confirmed by a figure of Stoll's of a species which
seems to connect Conocephalus Thunb. with Giyllus
Latr. In this the ovipositor is considerably longer than
the body of the animal, and is composed of six distinct
pieces ; viz. two external ones stouter than the rest, and
within itieseyour others finer than a hair and convolute
at the apex'. There is a considerable variety in the
shape of the ovipositors of the Acrida and the cognate
genera : — thus in A. viridissima this organ is straight, in
A. verrucivora bent like a sabre, and in PterophyUa citri*
folia K. and some others, the whole machine is short
and boat-shaped ; in Scapkura Vigorsii K. it is also rough
with sharp little tubercles ^. I had an opportunity of

• De Geer v. 62. t. iii./ 1«. * Plate XV. Fig. 18.

• Stoll SautereL t xxii. b./. 87, &c. * De Geer iii. 418. /. xxi.
/. 10, 11. Latr. Cren, Crust, H Ins. iti. 98.

• 3toll ub% supr, t xiii. a./. 51. ^ This imect, which con-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 15S

observing, with respect to the first of these insects, that in
boring, as is the case with the Tettigoniae and saw-flies,
the motion of the valves was alternately backwards and
forwards. It appeared also to me that the two outer
pieces of each of the apparent valves were fixed in a
groove in the margin of the intermediate one. I saw this
clearly with respect to the upper pieces, and it is most
probable that the lower are similarly circumstanced. In
the cricket tribe {Giyllus Latr.) the ovipositor is as long
as the abdomen, very slender, terminating in a knob^.
It is apparently bivalve like that of Acrida^ but I believe
is resolvable into the same number of pieces.

In the Homopterous Hemiptera there seems to be more
than one type on which the ovipositor is constructed. In
an insect very common with us, the froth firoghopper(C?r-
copis spumaria), some approach is made to the ovipositors
last described, at least the number of pieces is the same—
for it has a pair of external valves forming a sheath, which
includes three sharp lamhuB resembling the blades of a
lancet, the middle one of which can be separated into
two ; this instrument De Geer had reason to think was
scored transversely like a file*^. In the insects of this Or-
der so noted for their song^ ( Tettigonia F.), there are only
Jhe pieces ; namely, two valves forming the sheath, two
augers or borers, and an intermediate piece upon which
they slide, each being fiimished with an internal groove
for that purpose, and the middle piece with a ridge to
fit ; a contrivance of Divine Wisdom, to prevent their

Beets Conocephalmy Acrida, &c, with Locutia Leach, is also distin-
guished by antennae at first filiform and then setaceous.

• De Geer iii. t. xxiv./ 1, 12. «> Ilnd. 176. t xi./. 19.

' Vol. II. p. 394.

15^ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

diBlocation when employed in boring ; the augers ter-
minate jn a knob which is externally toothed^. This
structure approaches that of the Hjfmenopte^a^ especially
the saw-flies. With regard. to the Heteropterom section
9f this Order — ^as they usually do not introduce their eggs
into any sfubstance, they have no call for any remarkable
ovipositor, and therefore are not so furnished. A re-
ipiiark which will also apply to the Lepidjoptera Order.

In the Libelbdina amongst the Neuropteray an organ
of tliis kind is sometimes discoverable. In Agrion^ Reau-
ipur noticed a part which he conjectured to be an &oi^
positoT; it consists of four lamina or lancets, the interior
p^ir slender, tlie exterior wider, and all externally ser-
rated*.

. , The insects of the Hymenoptera Order have long been
celebrated for the organs we are describing, whether
used as saiiosj augers^ or darts. I formerly gave you a
very general a<:count of the saw, — I shall now give you
i^ yery interesting one in detail copied from an admi-
rable little essay of Professor Peck. ^' This instru'-
ment^" s^tys he, ^^ is a very curious object; and in order
to describe it it will be proper to compare it with the
ienannsaw uBed by cabinet-makers, which being made
of a very thin plate of steel, is 4tted with a back to. pre-
sent its bending. The back is a piece of iron, in which
a narrow and deep groove is cut to receive the plate,
:which is .^ed : the saw of the Tenthredo is also furnished
ivilji fi, backjf but the groove is in the plate^ and receives
a prominent ridge of the back, which is not fixed, but
permits the saw to slide forward and backward as it is

» Reaum. v. 177-. ** IM. vi. 435. U xlf. 6, 7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. ISS

thrown out or retracted. The saw of artificers is single,
hnt that of the Tetithredo is double, and consists of two
distinct saws with their backs : the insect in using them,
first throws out one, and while it is returning pushes for*
Ward the other; afid this alternate motion is contintied
till the incision is effected, when the two sa^s tecieding
firom each other, conduct the egg between them into
its place. In the artificial saw the teeth are aliemately
bent toward the sides, or out of the right line, in or-
der that the fissure or kerf may be made sufiiciently
wide for the blade to move easily. To answer this pur-
pose in some measure, in that 6i the Tenthredoxh^ teeth
are a little twisted, so as to stand obliquely with respect
to the right line, and their point of course projects a little
beyond the plane of the blade, without being laterally
bent ; and all those in each blade thus project a little
outwards : but the kerf is more efiectually made, and a
free range procured for the saws, by small teeth placed
on the outer side of each ; so that while their vertical
efiect is that of a safw, their lateral effect is that of a rasp.
In the artificial saw the teeth all point outward {tcnDards
the end) and are simple ; but in the saw of the Tenthredo
they point inward, or toward the handle, and their outer
edge is beset with smaller teetn which point outwards (^o-
\Dards the end)^.^ Valisnieri, Reaumur, and De Geer de-
scribe the groove as being in the back; but in Mr. Peck'is
insect, if there is no error in his account, it is, as in the
CXcadcBy in the saw itself**. In the geniis Cimbex, be-
longing to the same tribe, the saw differs in shape, being

* Natural Hktory of the Slug-Uform, 12—./. 12, 13.

^ Valisn. E»petienz, &c. Musca de SataL Reaum. v. 100—.
De Geer ii. 910—. The last writer thought he saw in the back of
the saw itself a longitudinal cavity (91 8)» which applied to the groove
would form an open canal.

156 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

somewhat sigMoidnl or resembling the letter S, while in
that of other saw-flies it is cidtriform with a concave edge :
other minor differences distinguish them, which need not
be particularized.

A similar structure, with regard to the organ in ques-
tion, obtains in the rest of the Hymenoptera^ even those
that use it as a weapon of offence ; but the backs of the
saws in them, composed of a single piece, become a sheath
for the darts. The valves, however, vary. In most
of those with an exerted sting, as Pimpla F-, they are
linear, exerted, and as long as the aculeus itself^. In
Proctotrupes Latr. they appear to be united so as to form
a tube for the ovipositor, and are produced by a pro-
longation of the last abdominal segment. The darts
usually run in two grooves of the sheath, and at their
apex are retroserrulate^. In some cases the sheath it-
self is serrated ^. The shanks of the darts are connected
with the valves ; so that when these open they are pushed
out : sometimes on their outer side they have a triangu-
lar plate towards the base, which prevents their being
pushed out too far^.

In Sirex and many ichneumons, in which the ovipo-
sitor is top long to be withdrawn within the abdomen, it
remains always exerted ; but in general it is retracted
within that part when unemployed. In the gall-fly (C^-
nips) this instrument is really as long as in Pimpla^ &c. ;
but as it is infinitely more slender, when in repose'^ it is
rolled up spirally and concealed within the abdomen.
It is the puncture of this minute organ that produces the
curious galls formerly described to you^. But the most
anomalous ovipositor in this Order appears to be that

• Plate XVI. Fig. 1. «» Ibid.

« Reaum. v. 347. <• xlix./. 10. i/,/. ^ SeelOxyve, Vol. I.^O— .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 157

of Chrysis (C ignita^ &c.), which is covered by several
demi-tubes or scales enveloping and sliding over each
other : when these scales are removed, the true ovipositor
appears, which is of a structure similar to that of the rest
of the Order, but the valves are long and slender with
their summit generally visible without the anus**

Though the ovipositor of the majority of Dipterous in-
sects is a tube with retractile joints^, in the crane-flies
this organ is different, and, like that of Acridu above de-
scribed, consists of what at first sight appear two valves,
but each of which is formed of two pieces, the upper
ones sharp and longer, and the lower pair blunt. The
upper pair forms the auger that bores a hole in the
ground, and the lower conducts the eggs into it after it
is bored ^.

In the Aptera and Arachnida in general there seems
no remarkable instrument of this kind ; but Treviranus
has described one in spiders for extruding the eggs of a
singular construction. It is an oval plate lying between
the external genitals and spinning organs, and is com-
posed of a numbei' of small screw-shaped cartilages, con-
nected together in the most wonderful manner. There
are few organs, he observes, itt the animal kingdom
which for their artificial mechanism can be compared
with this. Each cartilage inosculates very closely in the
adjoining one, and all are besides bound together by a
strong skin**.

" De Geer ii. 835. /. xxviii./ 20, 21. Plate XV. Fig. 22. This
figure was drawn by a friend — the organ seems more exerted than in
De Geer's. I cannot make out the little appendage at the end.

»• Plate XVI. Fig. 2, 3. « Reaum. v. 19—, /. iii./. 3^6.

•» AracMid. 40.

ISS INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The manner in which the eggs of insects arejecundaied
by the male sperm is one of those mystjeries of Nature
that are not yet fully elucidated and understood. We.
can readily conceive that all the eggs may be fertilized
by a single intercourse in the case of insects which, lik^
the Ephemera and Trichqptera, exclude the whole mass at
once ; or Ufce many moths and butterflies, in a very short
time aflerwards ; but the subject becomes much more dif-
ficult to explain when we advert to the female of the hive*
bee, the whole number .of whose eggs, deposited in two
years^ are, as Huber has demonstrated, in like manner
fertilized by a single act ^ :— -if you bear in mind, however,
what I have lately observed ^ith regard to Malpighi's
discovery of a sperm*reservoir in insects,, you will more
readily comprehend how in this case a gradual fe<^unda-
tion may take place. The principal objection to this so-
lution of the difficulty in the case before us, is derived
from the very small size of the organ supposed to be des*
tined for this purpose— it being scarcely bigger than the
head c^a pin*' : it seems therefore incredible that it should
retain any portion of ao^ extraneous fluid at the end of
twelve or eighteen months, and still more unlikely that
the fluid should in the interval have sufficed for the
slightest moistening of not fewer than 30,000 or 40,000
eggs. The only hypothesis that seems at all to square
with this fact, is that of Dr. Haighton, — that impregna-
tion is the result not of any actual contact of the sperm
with the eggs, but of some unknown sympathetic in-
fluence*^, or rather perhaps of some penetrating effluvia
t.

» Huber Nouvel Observ. 1 106. ^ Swamra. Bihl, Nat, t xit.f. 2,
• Philoi, Trans. 1797. 80.

INTEUNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. " 159

or aura semi?ialis, which, though small in quantity, it may
retain the power of emitting for a long period.

Certain female moths, of the species of that family
which, from the remarkable cases or sacs the larvae in-
habit, the Germans call sack — trdger^ before noticed*,
have been supposed to have the faculty of producing fer-
tile eggs without any sexual intercourse; and various
obsen-^ers, after taking great pains, appeared to have sa-
tisfactorily proved the fact ; so that some doubted whether
these insects produced any males at all**. The enigm^i
was at length explained by the accurate Von Scheven.
At first his experiments were attended with the same re-
sult as those of his predecessors ; but upon making them
more carefully, and separating what he conceived to be
the female from the male pupae, he ascertained not only
the existence of fi female in the species he examined
{Psyche vestita\ but that when thus secluded she laid
barren eggs; evidently proving that in the contrary in-
stances above alluded to, an unperceived sexual inter-
course must have taken place ^. Though he thus ascei^-
tained that these insects do not in this respect deviate
from the general rule, he remarked or confirmed several
facts in their economy sufficiently anomalous and strik-
ing ;— as that the female is not only without wings, but
with scarcely any feature of a moth^ much more closely
resembling a caterpillar; and that in ordinary circum-
stances she never attempts to leave the pupa-case in
which she has been disclosed, but that being there im-
pregnated by the male, she there also, apparently, after the

* Vol. I. p. 464. *» Compare Reaum. iii. 153.

Pallas Act. Nat, Cur, \^Q^, iii. 430. Wien. Vcrzeich. 292.
*^ Natnrfor St*^. xx* 59—.

160 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IXSECTS.

manner of the female Cocciy deposits her eggs, which
hatching produce young larvae that make their way out
of the case, and thus seem to originate without maternal
interference*.

But the most remarkable fact bearing upon this head,
though as relating to a viviparous insect it does not
strictly belong to it, is the impregnation of the female
Aphides, or plant-lice, before alluded to^. If you take a
young female Aphis at the moment of its birth, and ri-
jgorously seclude it from all intercourse with its kind,
only providing it with proper food, it will produce a.
l)rood of young ones : and not only this ; but if <nie of
these be tret^ed in the same way, a similar result wiU
^Dsue, and so on, at least to the Jifih generation ! ! to
which period Bonnet, who first made an accurate series
of observations on this almost miraculous fact, success-
fully carried his experiments, till the approach of winter
and the want of proper food forced him to desist*^ ; and
Lyonnet extended it still further^. It is now generally
admitted as an incontestible fact, that female Aphides
have the faculty of giving birth to young ones without
having had any intercourse with the other^sex. How
are we to explain this most extraordinary fact ? Are

' It does not appear to be clearly decided whether the eggs are ex-
ti^uded from the female, or whether dying immediately after fecunda-
tion they are hatched within her body. As the young larvae cer-
tainly are hatched in the pupa (not merely within the exterior case
of bits of grass, &c., which includes it) which the body of the insect
must fill, it does not seem easy to conceive how she can iind room
for oviposition ; and yet Von Scheven expressly says that one female
of Ps. w^^ito— which being kept from all access to the male actuolly
left the pupa-case and wandered about the glass which contained
them—laid unfruitful eggs. *> Vol. I. p. 32, 174.

« Bonnet i. 19 — . * Reaum. vi. 551.

JNTBKNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS* 161

we to suppose with Bonniet that these insects are ^uly
androgynous, as strictly uniting both sexes in one ?- This
supposition^ however, is coinpletely overturned by the
circumstance, that there are actually male as well »
Jemale AjphideSj and that these, as was first observed
by Lyonnet, are united towards the cl6se of the sum-
mer in the usual manner*. The most likely supposi*
tion therefore is, that one conjunction o£ the sexes su& '
fices for the impregnation of all the females that in a
succession of generations spring from that union. It is
true that at the first viewlhis supposition appears incre-
dible, contradicting the general laws and course of na-
ture in the piaoductioh of animals. But the case of the
hive-bee, stated above, in which a single intercourse with
the male fertilizes all the eggs that are laid for the iqpace
of tm years, and in the case of a common spider men-
tioned by Audebert^, for many years, shows that the
sperm preserves its vivifying powers unimpaiiied for a
long period, indeed a longer period than is requisite; for
the impregnation of all the broods that a- female Aphi^
can produce ; and if immedia;te contact with the fluid be
hot necessary, who can say that this is impossible? It
is^ however, oneof those' mysteries of the CKEA^^R^.tJU^
humaai intellect csumot fully penetratie. . But ibis aiat^M^aty
in nature is not-wholly-oonfiried to the Aphides ; since.Jue-
rine has ascertained that the same thing takes place .with
Daphnia permata Miill {Mmoadm Pulex. L.)) .one^qf
Branchiopod Cru$tacea ^. It is worth observing whether

» im, 552. »» N, Diet, d*Hisi, Nat. u. 2^4. •

^ Ibid. ix. 1£5. Bonnet and Jurine both found that die female
Aphid^ and Branchiopods that were fertile without the usual inter-
eourse of the sexes were less fruitful than their mother, and those

VOL. IV. * M

162 iN(r&RKAL JkNATOMY OF IN«BCC$«

^eldmAe ApkidiS in their iHrtoral sti^ I mean Amm
of die smAmer <nr viviparous broods» have inlercoime
with the male. I think I have iioticed males amoiqpi
lietn ; but ihey seem to become mostJxumiMYMis an Jtbe
autumn, preparatory to the impregnatbu of the oiH^mi-
iMs females* The object of this hiw of the CwausrovL'ii
probably the more ready multijdicadon of the species^ . -

As to the period ofgestatiim, most insects begin to iaj
iheir eggs soon after fecundation has taken place : but in.
some Araehnidoy as the 8corpicm, which seems to be both
c^parofHs and o¥o-viviparoui^ nearly a yiear intervene^
imd the eggi increase to^)fi»r times thesiie whieh they had
iEittiained at Aat period, tbefinie they are extruded^ Thi
thflfi^ tliat is required to lay the whole they iu*e to pro^
diice, ivaries also in iiiKcts. In- this reispect they may be
diTided into two great dassesi^those namely which de<-
pdsit the whole at ance^ms 'Ephemerina9 TriiAapUr^if^Uf
i^ those which deposit' Ihem insucc^siofh aecupyingiiL
this opetotton a longer or ishorter period* Many in the
^5f tilass, as die IVickopiera {Phtyganea L^) cr Cffse»
Worm4l]e^ envelope their c^ggs in a gdklinous substance S
yiAidh renders their eximision in a mass more eaqr. Qf
the ^Mmd eliis^. which kidades byfinr the greater prqppiv
tioD of insects, ^ome eselude the whole number in a verf
diort period, others require two or three days or a week,
as the cockroach^ ; and others, as the queen-bee, not

of the last generation less so than the first. Latr. Hiti, NaL da
Crust, ct Ifu. xi. 292.

* See moreon the subject of fecundation. Vol. II. p. 158 — .

* N. Diet. tPHui. Nat. tool. 426. " Vol. III. p. 68.
^ 0 De Geer iii. 533.

IXTESN Al^ AN ATOMY Of INSfiCT^i . 1 6$

lemiiudi two yeaiti^ Tbe i^gs in tbe ^yviBims of tbe lf«l
vuy infinitisly ini size ^ thdsd thai? have enlSered die oviduel'
hanr;^ aifriVed at maturity^ while the rest grow gradutf ly
smaBer as &ciy approach the capiUary extremity of thgr
titbeS) where they becom^at lengdi intisible to the h%hes^<
magDifier '. In many insects the eggsseem nearly to have
reached their liili growth previoudy to the exclusion of tha.
faaale from the ptipa ; and this exda»bn and 'the ' im- '
pregnatidnand li^ring of the eggs- rapidly succeed eaeh'
o&er. Ooemoi(h{Htff)ogymna di^ar); which is' resiaric-^
able &p the number -of eggs she contains^ sometinie^dcK-
potttathem, even bef<»re tbey ate feeun^ted, in thepl^a-^
casd^*' But inlodieir oases tliestoualunionisnoCsouav
mAdlate^ and some time) longer or shorter, is requiirite*
finr the due expansicHi of the ef^ ; and the<ivaries^of th#
animal swell so much, as often to enlarge the abdoaleat'
toan extraordinary bulk : this is seen in a veryoommcMt
beetle ^&imf»omela Pdygoni) H^i feeds upon the khot^
gikas ; but in no insect is it so striking as in the female of
the' wiiite ailts^ whose wonderfiiUncrease of size iiftelr im*^
pregnatioii I have related to yot^ on a fepmer oocasion^^i

I shaU' condude this subject with a fe^ obflefvatkmal
vepaaobo^xrii^am iniKcis ; sttpposed neuierSf«nd%bndsi
which, though they do not fall in regularly under fmjr
of die foregoing heads, may very wdl have a ^dace in thk
letter.

1. It has already been observed that there are a few
ow^viviparous iasects^, the young of which exist m the
ovaries at first as ^gs, but are hatched within the bcidy
of the mother, and come forth in the living form of a

' Swamm. i. 203. b. t. xix./. 3. ^ Reaum. ii. 66.

• Vol. n. p. 30. ^Vol. III. p. 64—.

M 2

164

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS-.

larva and sometimes even of a pupa. Of the first descrip-
tion are certain Diptera, the ApkideSy and the Scorpion,

Reaumur lias described two modes in ivhich the lar-
vae of the first are arranged in the matrix of the mother.
In some they are heaped together without much ap-.
pearance of order, being placed merely paralkl to each
other ^; but in others they are arranged in a kind of ri-
band— the length of the little animals, which are also
parallel, forming its thickness — rolled up like the main-
spring of a watch ^. These larvae in general are not di-*
vided into two masses corresponding with the pair of
ovaries in other insects, but form only a single one^.
You must not suppose that these little feftises lie naked
in the womb of the mother ; each has its own envelope
formed of the finest membrane, which, however, is not
entirely divided from that of those adjoining to it, but
appears to be one tube, which becohies extremely slen->
der between each individual, so as when drawn out to
kfcdc like a chain ^* Reaumur seems to have thought
^at in these flieis the larvae were never confined in any
other case or egg^; but De Greer sometimes found e^s
in the body of Mtisca camaria, though most generally
larvae,' from which he conjectures that it is really oixM«-
viparous, the eggs being hatched in the body of the mo-
tlier'. As these flies are all carnivorous, and their of-
fice is to remove putrescent flesh, you may see at one
glance the object of PROViDENCE.in this law of nature—
that no time ma^^be lost, and the animal exercise its
function as soon as it is disclosed from the matrix.

The Aphides, so fruitful in singular anomalies, are ovo*

» Plate XXII. Fig. 4.

* Reauiii. iv. 414.

• Mid. 404.

»» Ibid. Fig. a
" Ibid' t. xxviii./. 14, 15.
* De Geer vi. 63—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 165

Txviparous, as I have before hinted^, at one period of the
year, that is during the summer, but strictly oviparous
at tlie close of the year. From the experiments of De
Geer, however, upon Aphis Rosce, it would appear that
this faculty is not conferred u^n the same individuals,
but only upon those of different generations of the same
species ; all the generations being ovo-viviparousf except
the last^ which is oviparous^ : nor dcfes it appear, as has
been sometimes imagined, that it is common to the wlioTe
genus. De Geer observed a species in the fir, which
makes curious galls resembling a fir cone [Aphis Abie-^
iis\ which appeared never to be ovo-viviparous^.

With regard to scorpions^ it does not seem clear that
they are always ovo-viviparous : M. Dufour twice found
in the midst of the eggs nearly mature, 9 young scorpion
which appeared to him at large in the cavity of the ab-
domen ; it was so large that it was difficult to compile-
hend how it could possibly be excluded from the animal^
without an extraordinary operation^. The pupiparata
insects {Hippobosea, &c.) have. been sufficiently noticed
before*.

2. I have already in several of my former letters stated
to you what the modern doctrine of physiologists is with
respect to certain individuals, usually forming the most
tiumerous part of the community with insects living in
society, that were formerly supposed to be neuters, or as
to their sex neither male nor female — ^that they are in
almost every instance a kind of abortive females, fed with
a different and less stimulating food than that appropri-
ated to those whose ovaries are to be devdoped, and in

» Vol. I. p. 174. *» De Geer iii. 70—.

^ Ibid, 128. " iV. fM. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 426-,

* Vol. III. p. 64— .

166 lifTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consequeaoe in rvosX instance incapuble a[ concept' onK
Upcm these sterile females, you also heard, devolve in
general the principal labours of their respective colonies,
showing the beneficent design of Pi^ovidence in exempt-^
ing them from sexual cares an4 desires, and meriting for
them the more apprc^riate name, now generally usedi of
waritrs* The differenqes in the structure of the feinale
bee and the workers were also then accounted for; and
similar reasoning may b^ had recourse to with regard to
those of ants, in whicl^^the worker and the female diflSbr
still more materiallyt My reason for introducing tbis
subject here, is to observe to you that I have 3onie
grounds for thinking that ,tbi3 system extends further
than is usually supposed, and that to each species in
some Coleapterous and other genera there are cert^n
indiyiduals intermediate ;between the male and feffiale ;
this I seem to. have observed more especially in Cqpris
and. Qnihophagus. For in aUno)&t ev^ry British q)ocies
in my cabinet of these gf^nera I po$$e$s $uch an indiyi-
dual, distinguished particularly by having a horn on the
head longer than that of the female, but much shprt^r
ihan that of the male. I once observed a p^r of Pen^
kttama oleracea, a very pretty bug, in coiiu^ both sex§9
being ornamented with white spots, and by them stoc4
a t^ird distinguished from them by r^d ones, i do iipti
however, build on this circumstance, though sin^uli^r;
but mention it merely that you may keep it in your ^ye^
It would be curious should it turn up^ that, to answer
son^e particular end. of Proyipgnce, in .some tribes of
insects there Aise two. kinds .a( makSi ^ in the gfegaij^ins
ones two descriptions oi femaUs.

• Vol. II. p. 50, 111—, 118-, 1«7— , 134. The «uw^« of the
Termiteif however, (p. 3S.) seem to be a distinct sex, if I may so
speak — and to merit that name.

LETTER XLHI

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONCLUDED.

lumos.

■ ' i

We have-seen upon a former occ<tsioh die ^at variety
of movements that insects can perform, and of the ex^
temal organs with which they perform them* : but we
are now ta consider the internal apparatus, by the im-
mediate action of which they take place — their system of
muscles. When we reflect upon the wonderful velocity,
their size considered, with which many iiisects move, and
the unparalleled degree of muscular force that m^iy ex-
hibit^, we feel no small degree of curiosity to know
something of that part of their internal structure that
produces these almost incredible effects. I shall in the
present letter endeavour in some degree to gratify that
curiosity, and give you an account of the muscles of these
little animals, — ^first considering them in general; and
then, as far as my information goes, adverting to those in
particular that move the difierent parts and organs of ah
insectfs body.

^ Vol. II. Lotter XXII. Vou III. Lettbks XXXIV.— XXXVI.

»» Vol. II. p. 283, 299, 310, 314—. &c.

168 IKTERKAL ANATOMY OF IKSECTS.

I. The musdes of insects may be considered in gene-
ral as to their Origin; Substance and Parts; Shape; Co*
lour; Kinds; Attachment; and Motions,

L Origin. The origin of the muscular fibre in the
higher animals is from the bloody the globules of which,
by their coagulation in a series, appear to form it^ ; and
in insects it is derived from the same universal source of
nutrition and accretion, but not till it has been concreted
into the adipose tissue or epiploon before noticed*'. In
the pupa of the cabbage-butterfly, Herold observed that
this substance first assumed a fine flocky appearance asid
a blue-green colour, and that firom it so changed were
produced tender bundles of muscular fibres, extending
in various directions, the epiploon itself decreasing in
proportion as they were formed^, .

iL Substance and Parts, The muscular fibre in ver-
tebrate animals appears to consist of globules arranged
in a series, and of no larger diameter than those of the
blood, — the mean diameter of which in the human sub-
ject, when measured under the microscope by a micro-
meter, is found to be about 7^1^ part of an inch ^. When
Cuvier published his immortal work in 1805, the powers
of any magnifier then constructed were not sufiident to
^enable this great physiologist to arrive at the simple
fibre*; but Mr. Bauer, by the use of improved glasses,
amongst other discoveries that will immortalize his name
was the first to detect, under the directions of Sir £.
Home, the ultimate thread of which the muscular bun-
dles are composed ^. Chemists distinguish the substance

• Pkitot. Trans. 1818. 174. /. vm.f. 4—6.

*» See above, p. 144—. c SchmeUerl. 105.

* PhUos. Tram. 1819. 172. 174, 187. * Ami. Camp. i. 90.
' Ph\!m. Trans. 1819. 175.

,

IMTESNAL ANATOMY OF /MSEOTS; 169

of which we are speaking, by the name oi^fibrine. By thd
abundance of azote or nitrogen that enters into its com-
position, it possesses a character of animalization more
marked than any other animal substance; and its ele-
ments are so approximated in the blood, that the slightest
stagnation causes them to coagulate i and the muscles
are without doubt, in the livilig subject, the only organs
that can sq)arate this matter from the mass of blood
and appropriate it to themselves^. The primary bun-
dles of muscles are formed of the simple fibres, and
the secondary are the result of an aggr^;ation of the
primary. The smaller bundles are not always exacdy
parallel to each other, but must in many cases diverge
more or less, to produce those variations in shape ob^
servable in the muscles themselves: there are intervals
therefore between the bundles, which in some animals
are filled by a cellular substance*'. Probably much of
this statement will apply in most instances to the nras-
des of insects^ but we may conclude that the globules
that form them are infinitely smaller^. Lyonnet has
given some interesting observations with regard to those
of the caterpUIar of the Cossus: he describes them as>of
a soft transparent substance, capable of great extension,
covered and filled by silver tubes of the broncktcp, pene-
trated by the nerves, and containing oily particles. Each
muscle was enveloped in membrane, and was ccMnposed
of many parallel bands, consisting of bundles of fibres
enveloped likewise in separate membranes. The fibres
themselves, (but it is doubtful whether he arrived at the
ultimate term of muscular fibre,) in a favourable light

» Cuv. M supr. 90—. " Cuv. Ibid. i. 80—

*= See above, p. 84.

170 iKTEmjr4L anatomy of insects.

and under a good magnifier, appeared to be twisted
spirally*. In spiders the muscles seemed to him to
coosbt of tooa substances, the one soft and the other
bard, the last forming a kind of stiff twisted filameiit^
A muscle thus composed of diluent bundles of fibres
maybe stated as to its parts^ in insects, to oonsist ^
base, middle^ and apex : the base is that partt^.^dbich
they are fixed to any given point of the internal sur-
fiioe of the crust, or of one of its processes, which
serves as their fidcrum ; the apex is that part by which
they are fixed, either mediately or immediately, to the
organ to be moved ; and the middle is the remainder of
the muscle. We usually discoyer in them no inflation of
the middle corresponding with the^ bdly of the muscles
in vertebrate animals ; they occasionally,^ however^ ter»
minate in a iendouj as those of the thighs and legs.;^ bat
these tendons, are of a different nature &om the fibrous
-ones of warm-blooded animals ; for they are hard, elastic,
and without apparent fibres :, the fleshy ones of the mus^
ele envelope them, and are inserted in- their sur&ceS .
. iS* Shape^ Hie musdes of insects are usually if fteor,
.with parallel ndes; some are cylindriealj as those of the
.wings of &e Ubelltdtna^; and others, as liiose that
move the legs in the caterpillar of the Cossus, are trian^
g1}lar^ In the suctorious mandttdes c£ the gpaibjoS' sl
.eommon w«ter-beede^ they are penniform, or shaped
like afeather ; and some m the Cossus are forked!'* Ua-

. « LyoanetilfMi^. t, w.f. a ^ IM, 9d^.

, « Cuv. ilfffi^. Comp, i. 134.

' Chabrier Sur le Vol da Ins» c. i. 445.

• Plate XXL Fio. 6. a. ' De Gcer rv. t, xv./. ll\ mn, op

^ Lyonnet Anai, 93.

JKTERKAL ANATOMY OF IKISCTS. 171

der this hetid I may also observe^ that the moscfei are
sometimes extremely slender threads, crossing isilii otheTf
and often curiously interwoTen In various /^Erections, so
as to resemble laoe or finegaoze, as amy be seen in the
alimentary canal of some caterpSlars* ; sometimes also
they surround part of tliis oF|pin,. like a series of minute
rings (*•

rr. Colam\ The most usual colour of the musdes of
insects is vohite: those for flight however, according to
Qudbrier, di&r from the rest, by being of a deeper and
reddish ciriour ^ ; and I have observed likewise that those
in the head of the stag-^beetle, when dried at least, are
red^ and look something like the flesh of warm-blooded
animals.

. v« Kmdi 2iXiA Denomination. In general, muscles may
be regarded as divided hato primary and seconiary'-^Xh^
primary being the muscles by which the principal mc^e*
ments . of any organs «ee effected, and the secondary ^ their
auxiliaries which are: the cause of subordinate rnove*^
mexits^. Every musde almost has it& antagonist^ the
action of which is in an of^osite direction; so that when
it is. equal, the organ to which they are attached, ri^
mains without motion ; but when that of one prepoo-r
derates, a movement in proportion takes j^ace^ The
principal antagonist muscles that may b^ found in insects
ane the following* 1« htoator muscles that raise an oiw
gan,'and Depressors ih»t depress iU 2* Flexors that
bend aq organ, and M^^ensm^s that unbend or

> Lyonnet Anai, U xiiL/. 1, 2.
^ Ramdohr Anat. t.'r^f. 1. e.f, 3.

Chabr. 11^ «t^r. 440—. « J^id. 4411, Ac.

* K. Diet. d^ma. Nat. xwL 80.

9

172; INTfiRNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

%.. Abductors that draw an organ back^ and AdAtctors
^iBoX.dxByi At forwards. 4« Constrictors iimt contrcLct bxi
opening, wmSl Lcucators that relax it 5. Supinators that
iH$ni the underside, of an organ upwards, vaidi ProneUors
that return it to its natural situation. Some of these,
muscles in insects, like some of their, articulations and
their spinal chord ^, seem to exercise a double functi(»^ —
thus the levators and depressors of the mngs are con-
strictors and laxators of the trunJc^* At first it may.
seem that insects, not having the power of turning up
the hand, cannot have, the Supinator and Pronator mu&-
des ; but some muscle of this Jj^ind must be in the Gryl-
lotalpa^ and in those that have a versatile head^.

V. Attachment and Insertion. The attachment and in-
sertion of the muscles in insects in general is to the /n-
terior of the crust, or to some of its internal processes
as a fulcrum, and to the organ to be moved. In some
eases, however, the muscles act upon the organ by the
intervention of other bodies. Thus, those that move tlie
wings are often attached to little bones^as Chabrier calls
them^, which are connected with the base of the wings
by ligaments. In the Dynastida and other Lamelli-
corns, and the Libelltdina, &c., a remarkable provision
is made for giving a vast increment of force to the mu&- ,
cles of the wings, by means of caps or cupules sur-
mounted by a tendon, which receive their extremity ; the
tend<m terminating in. a fine point attached to the wing,
and thus more muscles are brought to bear upon. It ^

• Vol. III. p. 664, 671. See above, p. 21.

^ Chabrier S^ le Vol des Ins. c, i. 446. Z' Vol. IIF. p. 412.

* UUiitjir. 437, 439. « . Plate XXII. Fig. 1 1, 12. c.
Chabrier M tupr, c. iii. t, xi.<viii./. 9. S. D: i, k. c. i. 440—.

I NTERN AL ' ANATOMY OF INSXCm 1 73

Ch^brier seems to think that^ in some casest^' the back
that intervenes between each pair of wings is the medium
by which the muscles act upon it^.

vu Motions* Irritability \i the universal distinction of
the muscular fibre^— *when put in action by the will or
involuntarily, it causes it to contract or become shorter^
and the intermediate agents of the will and otlier causes
are the nerves, which, as galvanic experiments seem in
some degree to prove, are the conductors of an invisible
fluid or power which immediately causes that action. IS
a nerve is divided, the muscles to which it renders obey
it no longer, evidently proving that the nerves cause mus«
cular irritability*'. How this contraction is immedtatdy
effected, — whether the fibre, as some suppose, undergoes
any crispation, or becomes zigzag^ ; or whether there is
any sudden change in their chemical composition that ra^
pidly and strongly augments their cohesion, as Cuvier
hints ^, cannot be clearly ascertained, unless a Bjauer
could submit the living fibre to his glasses. All that we
know certainly on the subject is, that muscles alternately
contract and relax at the bidding of the will or involun-
tarily, and so occasion all the movements of animal bo-
dies.

# • . «

II. Having considered the muscles of insects in ^^^«
ralj I must next make a few observations, as far as my
m^ns of information^ will enable me, upon those that
move their different ^ar/5 and organs — at least the princi*
pal ones; since to descend to minutise would be an end-
less and unprofitable labour. As /flrvi, except those

" -^W'/. k Cuv. Aiwt. €<mp. i. 94—.

• N. nict.^Hiii. mt, xxii. 80. ^ Ubi svpr. 101—.

174 llffTSfiMFitL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

wfaine ttetamorpliosis is semicoikplete^j differ widely m
^ir system of muscles from perfect insects^ I shall be*
gin my observations with them.

We ow^ by far the most accurate tnd detailed ac«
count of the muscles of larrae to the illustrious Lyonnet^
whoy with incredible labour and padence without ex*
wnple, dissected the ci^rpiUar of the Cassus^ and baa
described every air-vessd, every nerve, and every fnus*
cfe that could be detected by the microscope. Cuvier
also has given a description of the muscles not only cif
caterpillars, but of the larvae of the Lamellicom beetles^:
the Hydropkilij and the Capricorn beetles**. From these
sources are derived what I have now to lay before you..
If you look at one of Lyonnet's plates^, the layers oC
longitudinal muscles look like so many. parallel ribandsi;
othtfw rmi in an oblique^ and ojtha*8 again in a trans*
WTie direction^. He divides them into dorsal, ven^
traly and lateral muscles % terms which sufficiently esA
plain themselves. Of the hngitudinal nmscles there
Bxejbur principal rows'", the others are more numerou&i
The principal object of these muscles, which are fl^cors
and extensors, is to shorten or lengthen the body, or to
act on any particular segment as the circumstances df
the animal may require. I shall not here notice the
muscles of the head and legs, as they are not remarkably
different from diose of perfect insects^ The prolegs are
moved by two muscles — ^the anterior one covering in
part the posterior— of a remarkable structure : one of
their points of attachment is by many branches or tails

• Vol. I. IK 67. * Anat. Comp. I 432—.

«" Anat. t, vii./. 2. \eh hand. ^ Ibid, right hand.

INTERNAL AJNFATOMY OF INSSCTS. 174

to t&e sole of the foot^ and foy sereral heads to the skin
of the animal ; so that thejr can draw the Tp^e§ #tthiti
ihe body or push it ont^ and perform odi^ t6scess9xy
moTCsnents^

I shall now call your attention to the muscles of tbn^
'perfect insect, as they move the head and its organs ; th^
Trmkt the Abdomefi; and the Viscera*

]« The Head. This jiait in insects moves upwards,
downwards inward^ to right and left, is pushed forth
or drawn in, is often capable in part of a rotatory move*
ment, and is sometimes versatile^ turning as it were upcm
a pivot. AU tibese moveanents are of coar^ produced
by an appropriate apparatus of nmsdes^ which have their
attachment in the anterior part of the trunk, mostly in
iSixt manitnmk, while their iiisiertion is in ikn^ posterior
pttrt of' the head, in the margin of the oecq)ital cavity.
To enumerate and describe them all would be tedious
and uninteresting-^I shall -only m^ition some of the
principal one& The levators of the head are usually a
pair of muscles situated in the^manitrunk, to the upper
side of which they are attached^ and perhaps in CoUek
f^era and some others to the phragmty which probably
Guvier means by thea/i^m^r part of Ae scuteUum^%
th€^ are inserted in the posterior margin of the ujqjer
pert of the h^ad^ in Coleoptera in a pair of liotches {Mxf^
4^yphides^)y or a single eile^. In Calandra Palmamm
these muscles as they approach the head^ to judge from
the dead animal^ divide into tttx) branches or a fork:
thusy as the muscle-notches are wide in this insect, the

• Vq£. III. p. 13&— . . , ^ Arua. Comp. I 447.
«^ Vol. nr. p. 367. Plate XXVII. Fig. 1, 4. n'.

* H)id. Fig. 3. n'.

176 - rNTERNAL ANATOMY OP INSECTS.

muscle acts upon each, extremity of the sinus — ^these
branches appear to be tendinous^. The depressors of
the head are the antagonist muscles to the above, and
have their attachment to the antepectus and its afite/iircaK
A circumstance distinguishes these muscles in many Co-
leoptera^ that seems hitherto to have been overlooked*
If you take the common dung-beetle {Geotntpes stereo-
rarius\ and carefully extract the head with its muscles
from the trunk, you will see on each side of the depres-
sors A subovate corneous scale, of a pitch colour*^, which
IS attached only to the muscle, and designed to strengthen
it : if you then examine the anterior cavity of the mani'^
trunky you will perceive on each side, just within the
lower margin, a minute triangular scale, of a similar sub-
stance ; these ligaments, like the pax-wax, or UgametUa
nuchce^ in mammalia, though in a lower situation, are
doubdess intended to sustain the action of the muscles. '

With regard to the moveable organs of the head-^the
antenna, maxilla!, palpi, tongue, mandibuke, &c., have
each their appropriate apparatus of muscles: but I shall
only nodce those of the last, mandibuke. These are
principally abductors and adductors to open and shut
them : from the work that the jaws of some insects liave
to do^ you may conjecture that they must be furnished
with powei*ful muscles. In caterpillars and other larvae^
in which state the action of the mandibles is most in re-
quisition, the muscles are what Cuvier calls penniform^,
and are attached on each side to a tendinous lamina or
cartilage. In the grub of Dytisais the power and mag-

» Plate XXVIL Fig. 1. a, »» Vol. Ilf. p. 368—, 543,

586. Plate XXII. Fig. 7. Cuv. uhi supr. 448.

• Plate XXMI. Fig. 5. «. ^ Anat Conip. i. 136.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 177

oitude of the adductor muscle is wonderful^. In the
Orthoptera this structure of the mandibular muscles takes
place also in Ae imago^\ but in the CoUopteroy at least
in the stag-beetle and some others that I have examined,
these muscles in this state have no cartilage or tendon.
Their attachment is always to the parietes of the head^
of the cavity of which the adductors, in some cases, oc-
cupy a considerable portion^. As to their insertion —
these last, in s<mie Orthoptera^ enter more or less the in-
terior of the mandible^ ; but commonly they are inserted
at or near the interior angle of the mandibular basal car
vity, and the abductors Bt the ej^terior.

ii. The Trunk. We have little information with re-
gard to the muscles of the parts of the trunk itself, by
ivhich, in some insects, Ae manitrunk is enabled to
move independently of the alitrunk : it is more probable
that the levators have in part at least, their attachmient
to the anterior surface of the prophragm^ than that the
levators of the head should be there fixed, as Cuvier
seems to tlxink ; since both the pkragma and the ligament
that appears in many cases to close the cavity of th^
manitrunk round the viscera^, would prevent all com-
munication between those muscles and any part con*
nected with the scutellum : probably the depressors have
theit attachment partly on the anterior face of Ae medt'^
Jurca^. These points, however, must be left to future in-
vestigators.

With regard to the organs of the trunk, we have more

' De Geer iv. t xr.f. 11. o, jp. * Marcel de Serres, Com-^

paraiton, 4-c. 3-. • IM. 4. -» Ibid. 6.

• Plate XXII. Fio. U.h'. ' Vol. liL p. 68«,

« Plate XXII. Fiq. 6. Vol. 111. p. 687—.

VOL* JV. N

178 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

certain and satisfactory information ;*»the muscles of the
legs having been described by Lyonnet and Cuvier, and
those of the wings most particularly by Chabrier,. lu
caterpillars, the muscles are situated in the interior of
the articulations that form the legs : they consist of seve-
ral bundles appropriated to each, which have their at-
tachment in xh^parietes of the preceding joint, near the
margin, and are inserted in the margin of that they
move^. Lyonnet counted twenty-^one muscles in the leg
of the caterpillar of the Cossus; but eight of these were
appropriated to the cl&w, or rather formed a pair of se^
mipenniform muscles, having their insertion at the inner
angle of its base^. In perfect insects, according to Cu-
Tier, each joint of the legs is fiimished with a pair of
antagonist muscles— a flexor and extensor, the former
being the lawer^ and the^latter the upper muscle ; and this
pair has its insertion in the joint it moves, and its attach-
Inent usually in the preceding one : but those of the
coxae— which are rotators^ causing it to turn backwards
or forwards — and the extensor of the thigh, have their at-
tachment in the parietes of the tr.unk, and to the endo-
sternum ; one of the rotators of the anterior coxa, and the
extensor, of the anterior thigh to the antefurca; of the
intermediate .pairs to. the medifurca^ and of the posterior
to the postjurca^. Every joint of the tarsus has also its
ilexor and extensor. In Dt/tiscus L., Carabus L., &c.,
whose posterior coxae are immoveable, the thigh includes
two pair of antagonist muscles ^. In extracting the pos-
terior leg of Necrophorus Vespillo I observed more than

• Cuv. Anat. Comp.i, 436. Plate XXI. Fig. 6.

* Ibid, fl, b, • Lyonnet Anat, 37. * Cuv. tdti si^r. 458 — .
Vol. hi. p. 369, 379, 388. ^ Cuv. Ildd. 459.

fNT£RNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 179

a single pair of muscles that had their attachment in the
coxa ; and probably many other variations in this respect

Little was known with respect to the most int^esting
part of the muscular apparatus of insects, that by which
such wonderfully rapid tod varied motions are imparted
to their organs of flight, till Chabrier undertook to elu«
ridate it ; which he has done in a manner that will con*
fer a lasting honour upon his name, as one of the most
able successors to Swammerdam and Lyonnet in their
peculiar department. He has given a most admirable
account of the internal anatomy of the trunk of insects
in general, as far as it relates to their flight; particularly
of that of the cockchafer {Melolontha vtdgarts)^ of one
of the LibeUuUna {JEshna gra7idi$\ and of a humble-bee
{BofoAm) ; and I believe he has thus illustrated insects of
some of the other Orders, but his memoirs on these I
have not had an importunity of consulting. What I
have to say on this subject, therefore, will be principally
derived from what he has communicated with respect to
the above insects.

A considerable difierence in the volume of the muscle
of the wings takes place in insects according to the force
of their flight. Where it is rapid and powerful, the all*
trunk is nearly filled by them, and the alimentary canal
is much attenuated ; but in those whose flight is feeble,
they occupy less space, and the alimentary canal is
proportionally enlarged*. In the Lepidoptera^ Hy-
menoptera, and Dipterti^ the principal muscles of both
wings have their attachment in the anterior portion of
the alitrunk^ ; in the Coleaptera^ in the posterior*^ ; and

" Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 441. »• Ibid, 416. «^ Ihid.

N 2

180 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

• • • '

in the Libelhdina^ those of the anterior wkigs are ccxi^^
fined to ihe anterior portiQiA., and those of the posterior
pair to the posterior^. The muscles for flight in g^oe^
ral differ from others by their masis, length, and colour ;
the bundles of fibres are very distinct, strong, and par-s
allel; their direction is tmiforni, according to the mo-
tion they are to produce ; their fibres are either attaciied
to the solid parts to be moved, or to cupules, but they
never terminate in a tendon ; the muscles are perfectly
independent of each other, and the wings can be moved
by them separately **. As to their denomination and
kind — ^the principal ones are the levators and depressors^
which with respect to the trunks as was before observed,
are constrictors and laxators. The levator muscles form
several distinct bundles in Coleoptera, Lepidopiera, &c. ;
in the Diptera there are three ^ ; in the LibeUtdina they
seem to be single, are all environed with a blackish pel-
licle, with numerous aerial vesicles, symmetrically ar-
ranged, filling the interstices ^. The most common num-
ber is a levator to each wing ; there are often, however^
as in the cockchafer and the dragon-fly, too depressors^:
but in the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo L., the
secondary wings have distinct levators, biit not depress-
ors ' ; the other Hymenoptera have only a pair of eacht^.
The other wing- muscles are of as^ron^fo;^ description, ind
auxiliary to the above. Their office is to extend and close
the wings : so that though the denomination of extensor
will suit the former, that ofjlexor is not so proper for

*■ Chabr. Sur le Vol da Int, c. iii. 344. t. viii./. 8, 9.

^ Ibid. c. I. 440. *^ Ibid. 444. ^ Ibid. 445. c. iu. 359.

• Ibid. c. n. 332. c. iii. 359. ^ Ibid. c. I 445.

• Rid, c, iv. 73.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INS£C1*S; l8l

tbeir antagonists; their office being not so much to
bendj as to bring back the wing to its station of repose.
The folding of certain wings, as those of Coleoptera^
Dermaptera, the Vespida^ &c., seems more the function
of the abdomen than of the wing-muscles : this you may
easily see, as I h^ve often done, if you attend to any Sta^
phylinuSi when after alighting from flight it proceeds to
fold up its wings under the elytra. • Perhaps the term
retractor might not be inapplicable to the muscles in
question. Both these and the extensors are usually
small slender muscles, but sometimes numerous^. They
are larger in Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo'L,^.
The muscles that open and shut the elytra of Coleopteroj
and probably of Heteropterous Hemiptera^ and which
also aid their movements during flight, are very slender 5.
With regard to the attachment and insertion of the wing^
muscles, it is according to two very distinct types, one
of which appertains to insects in general, and the other
is peculiar to the Libellulina. In insects in general^ the
principal muscles for flight have not their insertion in
the wings, but act upon their bases by the intervention
of small long pieces. The depressors occupy the middle
and upper region of the.alitrunk, and are inserted ante-
riorly and posteriorly upon the concave surfaces of two
tvansv^rse homy semi-partitions, adapted by their elas-
ticity to dilate the trunk — and thus acting the part of
both diaphragm and ribs^ : but in the LibeUulinoy as in
birds, these muscles are placed on each side of the point

• Ibid. c. I 415, 442. c, iv. 80. «» Ibid. c. i. 442.

« Ibid. 439—. ^ Chahrier Analtf$e. 28. The

latter part of this passage is copied from a M.S. note of the author's
in my copy.— W. K.

182 INT£BNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of support of the humerus'; the depressors being at-
tached immediately to the wings without it» and the leva^
tors within it, with this sole difference, that ihey are con*
nected to the internal extremity of the base of the wing
by the intervention of a cupule terminating in a tendon ;
all are disposed perpendicularly to the arms of the levers
on which they act, and all incline more or less out'
wardsy the oiie to dilate^ and the other to contract the
trunk*'. It may be observed in general, that in insects
formed upon the^s^ ^^ ^^^ great action of these mus-
cles is the dilatation and contraction of the alitrunk, the
main tendency of which is to depress and raise the wings ^.
I shall add here a few words upon the attachment of the
wing-muscles in the different Orders : but first I must re-
quest you to read what I have said on the partitions and
chambers of the alitrunk in a former letter^. In most
insects of the ^rst type, the depressors are longitudinal
dorsal muscles that have their posterior point of attach-
ment in the metaphragm [costale Chabr.); but the anterior
varies : — in those that have elytra^ tegmina^ or hemelytra^
the muscles for them seem to be contained in the cham«>
ber, varying in size, that lies between ihe prophragm and
mesophragm; and the anterior pointofattachmentof their
depressor muscles is the mesophragm : they are also at-
tached in some to the metathorax or back of the poste*
rior portion of the a.litrunk^. The levator muscles in
Coleqpteray at least in the cockchafer, by a long tendon
have their posterior attachment in the lower part of the

» Chabrier Anali^se,28. Surle Voldesitu, c. i. 445. Vol, III. p. 619.
^ Anafyte ubi supr. " Sur le Vol des Ins, c. i. 448. c. ii. 336.
^ Vol. III. p. 585e— . * Chabr. IM, c. i. 443. ii. 316, 332.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS^ 183

posterior coxae ^, their anterior attachment to the solid
parts to be moved. In the Cockchafer and the Dfyna^
tidce^ but not in Geotrtipes^ on each side of the cavity of
the metatfaorax under the base of the wing is a krge and
small cupule, which from their lateral situation one would
ihink must receive the levator muscles — apparently un-
noticed by M. Chabrier; but as there is a pair .of these
cupules on each side, there must have been also a pair
of muscles attached to them, which does not agree with
his statement^. In the Hymenoptera and Diptera the
anterior attachment of the depressors is to the back of the
alitnmk and to the prophragm, and the levators to the
breast, and the sides of the back of the trunk ^. In the
LibeUidind the depressors and levators that terminate^
by a tendon surmounting a cupule, in the base of the/
wings, have their posterior attachment in the breast*
These cylindrical muscles with their cupule and tendon
look like so many sjrringes^.

Having thus described to you the powerful muscular
apparatus by which, either mediately or immediately, the
mngs of insects are moved, it will not be out of place if
I add a few words upon their flight itself. The great
obgect in this is to generate a centrifugal force which
may counteract the weight of the body. Its wings are
the external organs by which the insect as it were takes
hold of the air when they fall, and is impelled by it when
they rise ; its head makes -way for it ; its abdomen, as a
rudder, steers it ; and by alternately increasing and dimi-

• Ibid. 333. »» md. 332. Plate XXII. Fig. 11, 12. c. A

cupuliform process is also observable at the side of the metaphragm.
Ibid. Fi6. 10. a. « Chabr. Ibid, c. iv, t xi.— 4./. 14.

•» im, c. i. 445. xi.- 8./. 8, 9.

184* INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

liishing in volume, and rising and falling, enables it to
win an easy way through the fluctuations of the atmo-
^heric sea* The trunk by its elasticity admits the in-
ternal action of antagonist muscles, which by turns com-
press and dilate it ; an action promoting the elevation
and depression of the wings, and keeping up the elasti-
city of the internal air, which is thus now rarified and
now condensed : in the former state flowing like a tide,
accompanied by the blood, into the nervures of the
wings ^, and thus increasing their tension and centrifugal,
force; — in the latter ebbing and receding to the trunk,
thus relaxing the one and diminishing the other, l^e
spiracles by which the air enters or is expelled, open
and shut at the animal's pleasure^; and besides, many
insects are furnished, as we have seen^, with numerous'
vesicles or reservoirs, which can give out a supply of in-
ternal air when wanted: and thus they can vary their
aerial motions, diminish or. increase the counteracting
centrifugal force ; rise and fall, and move onwards and
in different directions, as their occasions demand^.

iii. The Abdxrmen is perhaps capable of the greatest
variety of motions of the three primary sections of the
body. Even when the insect is reposing, a constant dila-
tation and constriction usually takes place in it^; and
from its annular structure, its parts capable of separate
motion are numerous: — ^it expands and contracts; it rises
and falls ; it bends in various directions ; and its segments
can oflen be lengthened or retracted. Besides all this, its
spiracles open and shut, and its reproductive and other

■ Chabr. Sur le Voldes Ins, c. ii, a36. note 1. Vol. III. p. 293—.
'' ChBbr. /ijrf. c. i; 447. * See above^ p. 66 — .

*» Vol. III. p. 390. ' See above, p. 73—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. IS5

anal organs have their appropriate motions. In nume-^
rott^ Colecptef'Oj however, and some Hemiptera^ the up^
per-side of the abdomen is almost the only part that is
moveable^ especially near the trunk ; the under^stdei hay-^
ing its first segments soldered together, is only capable
of motion near the tail K The muscles that produce the
various motions of this part must be entitled to all the
denominations stated above^. I have on a former oc-»
casion explained to you how, in insects that have a pe*
dolate abdomen, that part is elevated and depressed ^»
In those with a sessile one the base is attached to the
metaphragm by strong ligaments^, and the muscles that
move the first piece act from one segment to another*
The partial movements of the segments of this party
where they have place, are produced by muscular fibres
wMch extend from the whole anterior mar^n of one to
the whole posterior one of that which precedes it If
those, for example, of the back contract, the abdomen be-
coming shorter above, bends upwards^ and if those of
the sides or belly, it bends sideways or downwards * : this
is a beautiful as well as simple contrivance.

The alternate rush of air from the abdomen into the
alitrunk, and from the atmosphere into the abdomen, is
attended by the constriction or expansion of that part as
it rises or &lls in flight ^ which seems to require the ac-
tion of constrictor and laxator muscles. "^

iv. The Viscera. Having before had occasion suffi-

» Chahrier SurleFoldes Ins. c. i. Addend. 298.
* See above, p. 171—. * Vol. III. p. 701—.

«• Chabr. ubi supr. c. i. i22. • Cuv. AnaL Comp, i. 461.

f Chabr. Analt^se 25. Sur le Vd det Int. c. i. 423, 452. Ad-
dend. dOl.

186 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dently to notice the muscles by which the systole and
diastole of the dorsal vessel of insects is maintained S I
shall now only mention those that are 'woven round their
alimentary canal, by which the peristaltic motion of that
organ, causing its contractions and the propulsion of
its contents, takes place. One would at first think that
a view of the intestines of any animal could under no
circumstances afford any very pleasing spectacle to the
eye of any but a scientific spectator ; but any lady who is
fond of going to Disons to be tempted with an exhibi-
tion of fine lace, would experience an unexpected gr^-
fication could she be brought to examine those of a ca«
terpillar under a microscope : with wonder and delight
she would survey the innumerable muscular threads that
in various directions envelope the gullet, stomach, and
lower intestines of one of these little animals ; some run*
ning longitudinally, others transversely, others crossing
each other obliquely, so as to form a pattern of rhomr
boids or squares ; others again, surrounding the intestine
like so many rings, and almost all exhibiting the appear*
ance of being woven, and resembling fine lace, — one pat-
tern ornamenting one organ; another, a second; and
another, a third. This will suffice to give some idea of
this part of the muscular structure of these Utile ani-
mals^ .

Lyonnet comited the muscles contained in the body
of the caterpillar of the Cossus. In the bead he found
228; in the body, 1647; and enveloping the intestines,
no less than 2186 ; which, after deducting 20 that are
common to the gullet and the head, gives a total of 4061 ^.

<^ See above, p. 83. ' . ^ Lyonnet AmU. t. xiii./. J, 2.

* Ibid. 188—, 584.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INS£CT9* 187

In the human subject only 529 have been counted* : so
that this mmute animal has%5d2 muscles more than the
Lord of the creation !

The muscles of the Arachnida se^n less numerous
than those of insects. In the Scarpionida they appear
to be robust, formed of simple straight fibres, of a whitish
gray colour : a muscular web, rather strong, clothes the
parieteSi but rarely adheres to them, of the abdomen,
and envelopes the viscera^ with the exception of the luiigi^
and probably of the heart. The dorsal part of this web
gives birth to seven pairs of filiform muscles, which tra-
verse the liver, and are attached to a muscular riband
which, passing above the lungs, runs the whole length of
the ventral parietes. These muscles when exposed to
view resemble extended cords. The abdominal segment
preceding the tail is filled with a powerfiil muscular mass
which moves that organ ^. Treviraiius discovered two
longitudinal muscles in Scorpio europceus^ running firom
the breast to the tail, which above and below each gill
were connected by another running transversely across
the heart, thus forming ft quadrangular area in which
the gills are situate^. The heart appears to be moved
by muscles not very dissimilar to those of the Cossm^^
as is likewise that of the Araneidcc; in Clubiona atrox
the wider part of this organ is muscular, and incloses a
considerable cavity ^ In this tribe the muscles of the
abdomen, the skin of which is sofl; and unfit to act as a
lever to them, are attached to a cartilage, and thus theit
action is better sustained ^.

* im, 189. ^ N, met. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 421.

« Arachnid, 9. i. If. 7- r. * Ilnd. o. * Ilnd. 10.

' Ibid. 45. t, iii./. 31. m, «, q, r, t.

188 INtERNAL AN:AT0MY OF INSECTS.

Having thus laid before you all of importance that I
can collect with regard to tlie apparatus of muscles dis-
coverable in insects, I shall next say something upon a
few other points connected with that subject When I
enlarged upon their moiions^ I related a few instances
of the extraordinaiy power of that apparatus* in leaping
ones ; but this power is not conlSned to that circum-
stance. The ^eoy not more remarkable for its com-
pressed form, enabling it to glide between the hairs of
animals, and its elastic coat of mail, by which it can re-
sist the ordinary pressure of the fingers, than for its mus-
cular strength, has attracted notice on this account from
ancient times. MoufFet relates that an ingenious En-
glish mechanic, named Mark, made a golden chain of
the length of a finger, with a lock and key, which was
dragged by a flea; — he had heard of another that was
harnessed to a golden chariot, which it drew with the
greatest ease ^. Another English workman made an
ivory coach with six horses, a coachman on the seat with
a dog between his legs, a postillion, four persons in the
coach, and four lacqueys behind — ^which also was dragged
by a single flea. At such a spectacle one would hardly
know which most to admire, the strength and agility of
the insect, or the patience of the workman. Latreille
mentions a flea of a moderate size dragging a silver can-
non on wheels, that was twenty-four times its own weight,
whidb being charged with poWder, was fired without the
flea aj^earing alarmed^. Many caterpillars are accus-
tomed to extend their bodies from a twig, supported
merely by the four hind feet, in one fixed attitude, either

* Vol. II. p. 314—. * Mouffet Tkeatr. 275.

' JSr. DicL tTHisU Nat xxviii. 249.

INTBRKAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 189

io an'obtique, horizontal, or vertical direction, either up«-
wards or downwards, and that for hours together. We
may conceive what prodigious muscular force must b^
exerted upon this occasion, by reflecting that the most
expert rope-dancer, though endued with the power of
grasping with his feet like a bird with its claws, could
not maintain himself in a horizontal position even for ah
instant. Bradley asserts that he has seen a stag-beetle
cairy a wand half a yard long and half an inch tliick,,
and fly with it several yards ^. Some insects have the
faculty of resisting pressure in a wonderful degree. If
yoii take a common dung-chafer {Geotrupes) in your
hand and press it with aU your strength, you will find
with what wonderfiil force it resists you; and that you
can scarcely overcome the counteraction, and retain the
insect in your hand : was it not for this quality, the grub
of tlie gad-fly must be crushed probably in passing
through the anal sphincter of the horse ^. But that
of ElophUus tenax affords a more surprising instance
of this power of counteraction : — an inhabitant of muddy
pools, it has occasionally been taken up with the water
used in paper-making, and strange to say, according to
Linn^, has resisted without injury the immense pres-
sinre ^ven to the surrounding pulp^; like leather-^ioat
Jack mentioned by Mr. Bell^, who, from a similar force
of muscle, could suffer carriages to drive over him without
receiving any injury. Almost as remarkable is the state of
extreme relaxation into which the muscles of some larvas
fall, when their animation is isuspended ; and the revived

• PAt/. Ace. of Workt of Nat. 144.

b Clark in Unn. Trans, iii. 309. ^ Fn. Suec. 1799.

'' A Anatomy of EjcpresHon in Painting. 170*

190 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

•tension to which a subsequent resumption of the vital pow-
ers restores them. Bonnet having suspended the anima-
tion of the caterpillar of Spkinjp'Ligustri by keeping it
submerged, squeeased it between his iSngers, until it had
wholly lost its cylindrical form and was as flat and sup*
pie as the empty finger of a ^ove ; yet in less than an
hoar the very same caterpillar became as firm, as com*
pact, as cylindrical, and in short, as well, as though it
had Jiever been submitted to treatment so rough*.

It is fortunate that animals of a large size, as has been
well remarked, especially noxious ones, have not been
^oidowed with a musoilar power proportionable to that
of insects. A cockchafer^ respect being had to their size,
would be sis times stronger than a horse; and if the ele^
pharU, as Linne has observed, was strong in proportion
to tiie stag-ieetle, it would be able to pull up rocks by
the root, and to level mountains'*. Were the lion and
the iiger as strong and as swifi; for their magnitude as the
Cicindela and the CarabuSj nothing could have escaped
them by precaution, or withstood them by strength.
Could the viper and the rattlesnake move with a rapidity
and force equivalent to that of iheltdus ond Scolopendra,
who could have avoided their venemous bite ? But the
CREATOR in these little creatures has manifested his Al«»
mighty powbr, in showing what he could have done
bad he so willed ; and his goodness in not creating the
higher animals endued with powers and velocity upcm
the same scale with that of insects, which would proba-
bly have caused the early desolation of lihe world that
he has made. From this instance we may conjecture,

■ Bonnet (Euvr. ii. 1^. »» AT. Did. d'Hist. Ntxi. xxii. 81.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 191

tiiat aft^ tbe resurrectioQ, our bodies by s change in
the structure and compo^tkm of dieir muscidar fibce
— ^for we know that their locomotive powers and organs^
as far as the muscle is concerned, wiU then be of a very
different nature* — xtiAj become fitted for motions and a
potent agency of which we have now no conception.

This wonderfiil strength of insects is doubtless the re-
sult of something peculiar in the structure and arrange-
ment of their muscles, and principally their extraordi^
nary power of contraction, excited by the extent of their
respiration : for animals that respire but little, as the
foetus in the womb and the pullet in the egg, have very
little contractile muscular power ^. To get some idea
from facts of this extraordinary contractile power in in*
sects,— extract the sting of a bee or a wasp, with itsmus*
cles, which appear to be attached to powerful cartilagi*
nous plates^, and you will find it continue for a long
time to dart forth its spicula, almost as powerfully as
when moved by the will of the animal. A still more ex*
traordinary instance of irritability is exhibited by the
andia, or instrument of suction of the butterfly. If this
organ, which the insect can roll up spirally like a watch-
spring or extend in a straight direction, be cut off as
soon as the animal is disclosed from the chrysalis, it will
continue to roll up and unroll itself as if still attached
to its head : and if after having apparently ceased to
move for three or four hours it be merely touched, it
will again begin to move and resume the same action*
This surprising irritability and contractility of muscle

• 1 Cor. XV. SO—. ** N. Diet. tPHisL Nat ubi supr.

^ Swamm. BUd, Ned, t. xviii. /. 2, 1, m, n, o. Reaum. v. /. xxix.
/. 7. i»9f^»o,p, q.

192 tNTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

doubtless depends upon the peculiar structure of the
andia, which is composed of an infinite number of homy
rings, acted upon by muscles, more numerous probably
than those which move the trunk of the^ elephant. The
motiiHi only ceases when the muscles become dry and
rigid.

I have already, under another head ^, considered the an'
nual sleep, or winter state of torpidity of insects, during
which an intermission for the most part of muscular mo-
tion and action takes place. I shall now make a few obser-
vations urith respect to their diurnal sleep, which may
very properly have its place in the present letter. That
insects^ usually so incessantly busy and moving in every
direction, require their intervals of repose, seems to call
for no proof. We see some that appear only in the day,
and others only in the nighty others again only at cer*
tain hours ; which leads to the conclusion, that when
they withdraw from action and observation, it is to de-
vote themselves to rest and sleep. The cockchafer flies
only in the evening; but if you chance to meet with it
roosting in a tree in the earlier part of the day, you will
find it perfectly still and motionless, with its antennas
folded and applied to the breast: — we cannot indeed say
that its eyes are shut; for as insects have no eyelids, that
si^ of sleep can never be found in them. Again, if a
Lepidopterist goes into the wood to capture moths in
the day-time, he finds them often perched on the lichens
that cover the north side of the trunk of a tree, with
their wings and antennae folded, and themselves without

• Vol. IL Letter XXVL

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSFXTS. 198

motson^ and insensible of his i^proach and their own
danger. Thus it was that I captured that rare insect the
lobster-moth (Staurqpus Fagi) in the New Forest Some,
however, have ksserted that the caterpillar of the silk-
worm, except when they moult, never intermits feeding,
day or night, and consequently does not sleep : but the
accuracy of this statement, both from analogy and obser-.
vation, admks of great doubt. Malpighi informs us that
these caterpillars for ah hour and more, twice a day, re-
miun immoveable with their heads bent down as thou^
asleep, and even if disturbed, resume again the same
inactive posture^; and other larvae in great numbers
certainly seem to have regular intermissions from eatings,
of considerable duration : those called Geometers, for
hours together remain motionless projected from a twig,
to which they adhere by their posterior prolegs alone ;
and the processionary caterpillars make only nightly
sorties from their nests, passing the day in inaction and
r^)Ose^. Bees have been often seen by Huber, when
apparently wearied with exertion, even in tibe middle of
th^ day to insert the half of their bodies into an empty
cell, and remain there, as if taking a nap, without mo-
tion for half an hour or longer ^ ; and at night they regu-
larly muster in a state of sleep4ike silence. Instances of
otl^^r bees that appear to sleep have before been mention-
ed^. Mr. Brightwell once observed an individual Uving^
spcxftmeni of HaUica concinna, which appeared to remaip
^o^onless on the same spot of a wall for three sttccesaivQ
days.

■ De Bombyc. 5. •* Reaum. ii. 185—^

« Vol. II. p. 189. * Ibid. p. 282.

VOL. IV. O

194 INTEKNAI- ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before concluding diese remarks cm the Internal Aha«
tomy and Physiology of Insects, I shall explain to you,
as you will probably feel inclined occasionally to pursoie
the subject, the best mode 6f dissecting' them. — By &r
1^ most useful dissecting instrumeits for this purpose
are^vtsry fine*^inted and sharp scissors^ as these will en-t
able you to divide the integument and separate other
j^MUfts with much less risk of injuring their delicate stnic*
tin?e than any knife. These sciss(H*s are what Swata^
merdam chidly used ; and he had some so extreni^
nnatt and fine, that he was necessitated to employ a fena
when he sharpened them. If to these be added a shasp
and fine*pointed knife or two, some needles fixed in hSm*
dies, also fine-pointed— <-(you will find them mdvecaave^
ident than any other instrument for detaching milUite
parts and ^res^) a pair of fiilie and accurately adjufifted
fUerSi and an assortment of camePs*hair dr«si^,--— yott
will be nearly set up as an Entomological dissector. You
will still, however, require a small dissecMng table, witihi
a projecting and moveable arm for lenses of varkms de-*
soriptions, so as to admit both the hands to be employed
upon the subject under examination ; and for this puf^
po$e probably no contrivance can be better adapted than
that of Lyonnet, of which the figure iii Adams Chi the
Microscope will convey a better idea thaii any descrip*

Pt^viously to dissecting any insect, it must \)e kifi^
by plunghig it into bcnling wateif, which is reccHnmend!^*
by Lyonnet, or spirits of wine or of turpentine ; and it 19
often usefiil to let larv^ remain a few days in the latter,

* L vi./. 3.

II^tEnNAL ANATOMY OF INSteTS. 195

by nrhieh meihs the vessels becomef firmer atid ^rotifer.
The parts otpup^e become miuih mc^ dii$tittOt if dfdy 'am
boiled for a few minutes : and the same mode may be
ififldpted in the examination of spiders.
^ The most cohvenient mode of proceedings which watt
tittt also of Lydnnet, is to dissect the insect in water, or^
to avoid putridity, in diluted spirits, — ^if small, upon a
cdhcave glass, to which it should be fai^tetied by means
df a'little itielted wak ; if larger, ili the bottom of a cdm«-
nlcih chip box, surrounded with k boifdet of wax to re*
tttin the fluid. Th^ integuments of the insect, bdng care-
fttlly divided longitu^nally with scissors, should if flexi-
ble be turned back, ahd fixed by small pins stuck in by
a fine pair of pliers, while the skin at the same time is
stretched by another. After making such observationa
ds present themselves without further dissection, the vis-
cera must be cautiously extractetl, washing away the fat
whfch surromids them with spirits of turpentine, in which
it is soluble, applied by cameFs^hair pencils. After se-
paration they may conveniently be examined by putting
diem into water, and gently shaking them so as td cause
the pitrts to unfold. If endowed with the pat56nce of
Swammerdam, you may even arrive at injecting these
minute parts with wax or coloured fluids, conveyed by
delicate glass tubes having one end as fine as a hair,
which he also employed to fiU the viscera wkh air ; and
afterwards drying them in the shade, and anointing them
with oil of spike in which a little resin had been dis-
solved, he succeeded in preserving them. If it is not
convenient to finish die dissection of an insect at once,
it should be covered with spirits of wine. Swammerdam
found a mixture of spirits and distilled vinegar very use-

o2

196 INTEHl^AL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ful for k€!!et>ing caterpillars previously to dissecting them,;
as it consolidated the parts ^.

And now having brought. to a close my long wander*
ings in this ample and intricate field, and having threaded,
as well as my slender powers and limited knowledge en-
abled me, the infinite turnings and convolutions of this
Dsedalean labyrinth — the Anatomy and Physiology oi in-
sects,— will you not own that the volume of wonders I
have laid before you proves irrefiragably that, though these
minims of nature apparently rank so low in the scale of
being, yet in their structure, instead of being, as might
be expected, more simple, they are infinitely more com-
plex and highly wrought than those animals that are
placed the nearest to ourselves ? the Creatou in the lat^
ter doing every thing by a beautifiil simplicity ; while in
the former, the more to magnify his power and skill, be-
<»use they afibrd no apparent space for it, by a won-.
derfuUy curious and intricate multiplicity: and whether
we study the one or the other, we shall in both trace
the footsteps of that adorable Love which has shown
attention to the comfort and well-being of the lowest in-
sect, as well as of the highest of his creatures.

' * Theflib directions for dissecting ar^ chiefly taken from Swanuaer-
^am» J^fe xir.^and Lyonnet Anat. 7 — .

LETTER XLIV.

DISEASES OF INSECTS.

Having laid before you what observations I thought
knight sufficiently explain all the principal features of the
Anatomy of insects both external and internal, you will
next expect to be informed whether, like the higher ani-
mals, they are subject to have the admirable order ob-
servable in their frame interrupted by Disease i and you
will perhaps imagine, from the multiplicity of their organs
and vessels, that they must be peculiarly exposed to de-^
rangements of the vital and other functions. That they
have their diseases is certain ; but, except in the case of
their appropriate parasitic assailants, which is a part of
their economy, it does not appear' that their maladies
are more numerous and frequent than those of other
animals. The same Almighty Power which endowed
them with so complex a structure, generally upholds
them in health during their destined career, until they
have fulfilled the purpose of their creation, when they die
and return again to their dtist*.

. But perhaps I may seem to you as makings too great
a parade about these little insignificant creatures if I as-
sign a separate letter to the consideration o( their diseases-i:

» Ft, dv. 29.,

198 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

but when you recollect that Aristotle has a chapter on
this subject*, and that the learned Willdenow has de-
voted a distinct portion of his excellent introductory
work on Botany to the diseases of Plants^, — ^you will
perhaps be of a different mind : indeed, some facts I shall
have to communicate are so remarkable and interesting,
that I am sure, when you have read this letter, you will
not think the subject one thjit deserves to be slighted.

Insect diseases may, I think, be divided into two great
^If^^; tho$0 r^sultiog^ ii^inely, from some amdental
^ternul iflijury or internal^ der^^^^meut, and those p?^
4u^^d hy pfirasittc a3saiIaAts»

J. Under th^ Jirsf hefid w^ may begin wUh waunibi
Jiactur^i niuiilatiqi^Si 4nd other extraneom^vis^oi^^
eia^c* To these — insects are peculiarly subject; and
tbpugh th^^ are npt, like the Crustacea and Arach^ida^
a94 3CH^e otb^r invertebrate animal^, endowed with the
po!iirer of reprodufing a mutilated Umb, yet their ivound3
appear to heal very rapidly, and at the time they are ia-
flicte<^ to produce Ut|tl|$ pain**. But if those important
Qiembers, their antenn^^, are mutilated, injects seem to
synS&c a kind, of derangement ; the great organ of their
ommmnfMiQ^ with each ot|>^, and in various i^pe^ts
m^. ib^ exjternal world, being removed, all their ipsl^cte
at once fail th^po. I formerly related how the a^nputa-

* Hist, Animal, 1. viii. c. 27*

^ The Ptinciphs of Botantf and of Vegetable Physiology, §3l0-'-353,
*^ Dr. Leach, from a communication of Sir Joseph Banks^ has
^ven a very interesting^ history of a spider which, haviog lo9t ^ve of
its 1^1^, froo) a web*WQav^r, had hecome ahunter; these le^ it after-
wards reproduced, though shorter than the others. Linn, Trans, xi.'
39a. Comp. N. Diet. d'Hist. Nai, n. 282. ^ Vol. I. p. 55—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 1S9

tian of these affects the queen^-bee^. A similar result,
as jlal^r tells us^ follows, when the same experiment is
t€|)eated on the workers or drtmes : they immediately
bei^ome unable to take any farther part in the labours of
the hive ; th^y cap no longer guide themselves except in
1^ light; if they petition one of their fellow citizens for
honey, they are unable to direct their tongue to its mouth
to receive it ; they rem wi neat* the entrance of the hive,
and when the light is intercepted they rush out of it to
return no more.

Insects occasionally are subject to iumaurs or a preter-
natural enlargement of their parts and organs. The an-
tennae of bees sometimes swell at their extremity so as
tO; resemble the bud of a flower ready to open, becoming
at the same time very yellow, as does the fbre part oF
the head^. I once saw a specimen of a Hydrophilus-^
agreeing with H* Jmeipes in every other respect even
to the most minute punctum — ^which had a large tumour
on each side oiVbe protkorax^ evidently accidental, occi^
sioned probably by the stoppage of the pores by which
the superlBjaous moisture and air escape when it under-
goes its last change. The converse of this I have ob-
served to take place sometimes in the same part of Qeo^
trupesfcveatus^ the ordinary lateral jf^otv^p becoming very
cSansiderably enlarged ;-^thi^ was the case with the spe-
dmeni from which Mr. Marsham made his descr^tien
of that insect The species is, however, very distinct m
other respects, and may always be known by its small
»ae. It happens now and then also, that these tumours
represent blist&r$* I saw one cmce on one elytrilm 6t b.

» Vol. It p. 169-. " Huber AbitOes ii. 409.

• .V. IHcL (VHist. Nat. x. 42.

200 DISEASES aF INfiiBCTfi^.

beetle and not on the other. Those of Serrcpalpas. (as
Mr. MacLeay, on the authority of M..ClairvilIe, informs
me) are particularly subject to this disease. But, of all
the organs, the wings are most exposed to derangements
of this kind. De Oeer, in a specimen of Pieris CraUegi
just excluded from the chrysalis, obserred that one of
these was distended by a considerable quantity of extra-
yasated green fluid-^two or three large drops following
an incision. This disease appeared to arise from the
lower membrane not adhering to the upper; so that the
nervures — ^which are rather longitudinal channels, being
open below, tlian tubes-— were not closed to confine the
fluid to its proper course. The malady, which might
be called a dropsy of the wing, . carried off the insect
the day after its exclusion^. Reaumur observed that
the wings of some flies were affected by an /^£r-dr<^sy,
as he calls it, which appeared to arise from the air escap-
ing from its natural channels, and thus separating the
two membranes that form the wing, and filling the ca*
vity produced by their separaticm^.

Sometimes also monstrosities are to be met with in
these animals, or variations from a sjonmetfical structure
in organs that are pairs. I have a beetle in which the
terminal joint of one of the maxillary palpi is short, ovate,
and acute ; and that of the other, long) semiovate, and
iratber obtuse* A specimen of Blaps Mortisaga in my
cabinet, taken by Mr. Denny, besides the terminal mucro
of the elytra^ has a long diverging lateral one. Goeze
bad the larva of a Semblis brought to him in which <»ie
of the two fore-legs, though perfect in all its parts, was

* De Geer i. 72-, * Reaiim. iv. M2.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 201

only half the length of theother^; which he regarded as a
reproduction, but it seems rather a malformation. Mill*
ler mentions a most extraordinary fact of a Noctua, which
wli^i disclosed from the pupa retained the head of the
larva^. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind
that have fallen under my own observation, may be seen
in a specimen of Chrysomela Juemoptera in the cabinet of
our friend Curtis ; in which one of the thighs produces*
a double tibia, but only one of these is furnished with a.
tarsus.

The diseases of insects which arise from some irderma
cause are not very numerous. The first that I shall
m^ition is a kind of vertigo. ^^ Ants have also their
maladies," says M. P. Huber : ^< I have noticed one ex-^
tremely singular ; the individuals attacked by it lose their
power of guiding themselves in a straight line, they can
walk only by turning round in a circle of small diameter
and always in the same direction. A virgin female shut
up in one of my glasses was seized on a sudden with this
distemper ; she described a circle of an inch in diameter,
and made about a thousand turns in an hour, or not
quite seventeen in a minute. She continued constantly
turning round for seven days, and when I visited her in
the night I found her still in motion. I gave her honey
'—and I think that she ate some of it" He observed
that some workers were attacked by a similar disease :
one of these, however, had the power of walking from
time to time in a straight line ;- when placed upon its head
it continued its gyrations ^. Similar motions of a little

-^ Naturf. xii. 224. /. v./. d. * Ibid. xvi. /. iv./. 1— 3*

* Huber i^ourmtfy 174. note 1. . ' '

S09 DISEASES OF IKSECrS.

molhi mentioned on a former occasion ^, may perhaps ha¥e
been produced by the sanie cause. Bees are also sob*
ject to vertigo, which has been attributed to their eating
poisonous boQ^^'--but may not this disease in all these
eases arise from some derangement of the nervous sy<*
stem? One of the ants which was so affected had loat
one of its antennse ; but as this was not the case mth the
olhersy no great stress is to be laid upon the circumstance.
Httber does not inform us whether those attadced by
this disease recovered or not,

I. have observed more than once, that Xhejleshtfijf and
some others of the same tribe are subject in particular
seasons to a kind of convulsions. When thus attacked^
they kick and struggle, and seem unable to fly. Soaie*
times they lie upon their backs without moticm, but if a
finger be placed near them their convulsive motions are
renewed. When thrown into the air, instead of flying,
they fall to the ground. Blad this distemper occurred e«r*«
lier or later in the year I should have attributed it to tl|e
benomhing effects of cold ; but as my observations wj»e
made one year (1816) in Mat^^ and in another (1811) in
ijie latter end of Juncy this could scarcely be the ease*
M the year last mentioned I observed that many ffiee
died under its influence. Iii wet seascms this tribe is
ixibject to another disease, which proves fatal to msi^ of
them, and indeed to other Dipiera. A white crust w^
peais to be formed upon the abdomen both above and
below, of a granular appearance, much resembling fine
moist sugar. On the back of that part this crust does

» Vol. II. p. 369. •» JV: DkU d^Hia. Nat. i. 42.

not cover the margins of the segments, whieh gives it
the iqijpearance of white Imnds; so that deceived by it, I
have often at fir$t flattered myself that I had met ^ith
BOjoie new. species* The under-side of the abdomen is
wholly iQO¥ered by it, divided in the middle into two lorn
gitndinal masses, the anal segment being bare. De Gieer
hus noticed this of a similar disease, which, when flies are
attacked by it, causes the abdomen to swell so as even
to burst, and the segments become dislocated^ Upon
opening the abdomen it is found filled with a white unof
tuoos fiubstance, which ofl»n accumulates (as above dei-
scaoS^ed) on its external surfaced .Dr. Host says that
in thist disease when the animal is dead, the wings, which
wete befoise incumbent, become extended, and its almost
invisible pubescence grows into long hairs ^. De Geer
seems to think that these flies are thus affiK^ted in conse*
quence of having eaten some poisonous food ^; but I nu-
tber suspect, as^ I liave observed it become preval«;it
chiefly in wet seasons, that it ar^Qs from a superabuni-
jdance of the nutritive fluid, or of the fot, so that it se^u
to be a kind of plethora.

Mr^ l^eppard once brought me a panide of grass, the
^nmes of which were rough with hairs, or small briatle%
to wiiich sevearal specimens of a fly related to JEunurus
pqnens Meig. adhered by their proboscis* At first I
thought that having been entrapped by the bristles, and on*-
ai}le4o extricate themselves, they had perished from want
of food; but since when touched they readily dropped
from the glumes, some other causes perhaps disease^ pro*
bably occasioned this singular suspension of themselves.

^ De Gwat vl 75. Utr. Hist Nat. xiv. 371.

* Jacquin CoUectan. iii. t xxiii./. 7. *^ Dt.Geer u^iiwpr.

S04 ]>IS£AS£S OF INSECTS.

The maladies to which bees and siUc'-warms are subject
are more interesting to us than those otjliesj on accouiit
of their utility as cultivated insects. One of the worst
distempers which attacks the first of these animals is a
kind of looseness or dysentery : this happens early in the
year, when they are fed with too much honey without
any portion of bee-bread, and sometimes destroys whole
hives. Their excrements, instead of a yellowish red,
then become black, and the odour they emit is insupport-
able ; the bees no longer observe their usual neatness,
inducing them to leave the hive when they void their ex-
crements, but they, defile it, their cells, and each other.
Several ranedies have been prescribed for this disease.
To prevent it, a syrup made by an equal mixture of
good wine and honey is recommended ; and as a cure, to
place in the hive combs containing cells filled with bee-
bread*. But one of the worst maladies to which these
useful animals are subject, is that called by Schirach
Faux Couvain, It originates with the larvae ; and is caus^
dither by their being fed with unwholesome food, or when
the queen, as sometimes happens, lays her eggs so fliat
the head of the grub is not in a proper position for
emerging firom the cell when the period for its disclosure
is arrived : — ^the consequence is, that in both cases it dies
and becomes putrid, which sometimes produces a real
pestilence in a hive. The remedy for this evil is to cut
away the infected combs, and to make the bees undergo
a fast of two days*'. The hive should be cleaned and
fumigated, by burning under it aromatic plants.

* SMnchHut.&c.54. Reaum.v.713. N. Diet. d'HisLNai. 142.
^ Ibid, and Schirach 56.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 205

The cultivators of the silk-^worm in France have given
names to several diseases to which that animal is subject
One is called Lm Bouge, and is supposed to be occasioned
either by too great heat, or by too sudden a transition from^
cold to heat It takes place when the caterpillar is first:
hatched ; which lives perhaps, but in a very sickly ^tate,
till it should spin its cocoon and assume the pupa, when it
expires. .Another degree of the same disease is called Z>f
Harpiom or Passis, A second distemper of this animal
is Oes Vachesj Le Gra$ or La Saune: this is a mortal dis-
ease, supposed to be of a putrid nature, and produced
by mephitic air ; it shows itself after the second moult,
but rarely after the subsequent ones. When a caterpil-
lar is first attacked, changing the air may prove a remedy ;
but when the disease has made progress, it is best to
burn or bury them, since if the poultry pick them up
they might be poisoned by them. A third disease of
silk-worms is called Les Marts Blancsj or Tripes, which
is also occasioned by impure air, when the leaves the
animal feeds upon are heaped so as to produce fermen-
tation. The caterpillars attacked by it die suddenly,
and preserve after their death the semblance of life and
health. Too great heat, whether artificial or natural,
occasions La Touffe, another disease, which, when the
heat continues Ipng, destroys all those that are arrived
at their last stage of existence in their larva state. Black
points scattered over different parts of the body, or livid
^aad blackish spots in the vicinity of the spiracles, fol-
lowed by a yellowish or reddish tint, ai^ sjrmptoms of a
fourth malady, called La Muscardine. After this the ani-
mal soon dies, and becomes mouldy, but does not slink.

206 DlSEASBlSS Ot rKS£CTM.

lliifi dteeeis^ is not (5&ntagious, and is thought to be
caused by a nidist heat^ attend^ by pernicious exhala-
tions. La Luzette, Lui$ette^ or Ctairene^ is another ma-
lady, which shows itself most commonly after ihfdfdkrtk
moult It seems to ari^ from some original defect in
the egg. The caterpillars attacked by it may be kiibwn
by their clear red arid afterwards dirty white colour ;
tbeir bckly becoiines transparent, and the matter of silk
exudes in drops from their spinnerets; consequently,
though as voracious as the rest, fliey are never able to
Construct a cocoon, and should be destroyed. Les Dra*
gies is the name given to cocoons which include ia larva
Aat never becomes a pupa. TTie cause of this diisorder
has not been ascertained, and whole broods are some-
times subject to it, which, as in the* last, seems td imply
some defect in the eggs. But as the caterpillar spins its
cocoon, and the silk is as good as usual, it is a taialady
of no great importance. Lastly, sometimes the mtdberry
leaVes have a gummy rather acrid secretion, which
purges the silk-worms; their excrement is no longer
solid ; they become weak and languid ; atid if the secre-
tion is abundant, their transpiration is impteded, and at
the time of moulting they are become so feeble as to be
unable to cast their skin*.

In the case of many caterpillars of Lepidoptera tJiat
died. Bonnet found by dissection that the disease was
remotely occasioned by a diarrhoea^ which taking place
immediately before they became pupee, prevented die
inner membrane of their intestines from being rejected,

• Latr. Hut Nat. xiv. 163-. N, DicL d'HisL Nat iv. 134—.

DTSEASSS OF INTSECTS. fO?

as it would bdve be^a if no extraofdiilarjr tamst had
preveoteid it^ attached to the hard exorement He found
this meihbrane converted into a jelly occupying great
part i^ the stomach, which he conjectured was the proid«
mate cause of their death ^.

To conclude this head — spiders are reputed to be subv
ject to the itone : I do not say Cahndus in Vesica ; bui
we are informed by Lesser that Dr. John Franck hav^
ing shut up fourteen spiders in a glass with some vale-
rian root, one of them voided an ash-coloured calculus
with small black dots\

11. I now come to that class of diseases which appears
to prevail almost universally amongst insects — ^I meitn
those resulting from the attack of parasitic enemies.
Thus millions and millions annually perish before th^y
have arrived at their perfect state. Diseases of this kiijd
prdceed ^ther firom ^egetahle or animal parasites. I shall
begin with the first, which will not occupy us long;

L As insects pass often no small portion of their life
in a state of torpidity, in which they remain chieSy with-^
out motion, it will not seem wonderful, should any par-
tial moisture accidentally accumulate upon them^ that
it liffords a seed plot for certain minute fongi to come U{^
and grow in. Persoon observes with regard to his ge*
nus Isariaj thai one species grows upon AelankP of in-
sects {Ltruncata\ and another upon pup^e (/. crassa^Y^-^
as he does not say upon dead larvae and pupae, as upon
a former occasion^, perhaps in these cases these plants
may ccmstitute an insect disease ; but I lay no stress
upon it, and (Hily mention the circumstance here as con«

* CKfwr. 11. 48-. •• Le$ser L. ii. 121.

« Synops. Meth.Fung. 687- g. 63. «. 1, 2, ** Ibid, 4 g. 1. «. 4.

208 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

nected with the history of these animals. Mr. Dickson has
described a Splueria under the name of etUomorhiza that
grows upon dead larvae ; it has a slender long stipes and
spherical granulated head : on the pupa of a species
of Tettigonia in my cabinet, another kind of Sphariaj
with a twisted thickish stipes and oblong head, springs
up in the space between the eyes. I observed something
similar but longer, in the grub of some large beetle in
M. Du Fresne*s museum at Paris ; and I have a memo-
randum of having noticed something of the kind on the
rostrum of a Calandra. Bees and humble-bees have
been sometimes thought to have some species of mucer or
other Fungilli occasionally growing upon them; but
Mr. Brown is of opinion that stamina which they have
filched from flowers have been mistaken for these
Fuf^iUi, since he has detected those of Orchidea in
some of this tribe, and upon a beetle shown to him by'
Mr. MacLeay, one which he knew to be the stamen of
an Aristclochia. I once observed a bunch of what I mis-
took for a singular mucor that adorned the vertex of a
humble-bee, between the antennae, which doubtless were
of the same description ; and I even saw one upon its
wing. Upon a former occasion I mentioned a parallel
circumstance with respect to a species o( XylocopaK

ii. The animal parasites that infest insects are either
themselves insects^ or 'warms.

1. Their inseci infesters, as far as we know at present,
are confined to the Orders Strepsiptera^ Hymenoptera^
Dipiera^BndAptera: they attack them sometimes in their
egg state, most frequently when they are larvae, occasion-
ally when pupae, and very rarely in their perfect state.

• Vol. III. p. 336-.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 209

Upon many of these I have formerly enlarged^, and I
shall now add such further circumstances as I then
omitted. The Strepsiptera Order, as at present known,
consists only of two genera, Stylops and Xenos; the first
being appropriated to the imago of Andrena F., a kind
of becj and the latter to that of the wasps. Their eggs
appear to be deposited in the abdomen of these insects in
which they feed, till having attained their full growth
they perforate the membrane that connects its segments ;
tfnd at the proper time their pupa^case bursts, they emerge,
^d take their flight. Sometimes four or five infest a
sm^e bee. Whether the latter dies upon their quitting
it I have not been able to ascertain, but fi'om their fly-
ing, when the little parasite is very near leaving them,
with their usual activity, it should seem that this disease
is not mortal ; but it probably prevents their breeding:
I do not recollect observing the exuviae of one in a male
bee^

The great body of insect parasites, however, belong
to the Hymenoptera Order, and chiefly to the Linnean
genus Ichiietmion, The insects of this Order have been
denominated Prf/zicrip^s, because of the wonderful instmcts
of ants, wasps, bees, and other gregarious tribes that be-
long to it; and they merit a name of honour not less for
the benefits that they confer upon mankind, by keeping
within their proper limits the various insect-destroyers
of tk<e produce oS the globe. It deserves notice that
when these hitter increase to a degree to occiEision alarm,^
thar parasites are observed to increase in a much greater,
so as to prevent the great majority of them fi-om breed-

» Vol. I. p. 264—.

* Mon. Ap, Angl. ii. 111. Linn, Trans, xi. 90—.

VOL. IV. P

v-'*

210 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

ing^. lliough ihese benefactors of the human race con^
stitute numerous genera, at present not well ascertained,
I shall speak of most of them under the common name
of Ichneumon,

The appearance of these little foiir-winged flies puzried
much the earlier naturalists : — ^that a caterpillar usually
turning to a moth or butterfly should give birth to my-
riads oijlies^ was one of those deep mysteries of nature
tdiich they knew not how to fethom'' : even the pene-
trating genius of our great Ray, though he ultimately
ascertained the real fact % was at one time here quite at
&ult ; for he seems at first to have thought, when from
any defect or weakness nature could not bring a cater-
pillar to a butterfly, in order that her aim might not be
entirely defeated, that she stopped short, and formed
them into more imperfect animals^.

Before I detail more particularly the proceedings of
Ichneumons, I shall make a few general remarks upon
them. The structure of the instrument by which they
are enabled to deposit their eggs in their appropriate
station has been before sufliciently described * ; it is long
or short according to the situation and circumstances of
the latva which receives them : if it lives in the open air,
and the access to it is easy, it is usually short and re-
tracted within the body; but if it lies concealed in deep
holes or cavities, or shuns all approach, it is oflsen very
long. Thus in Pimpla Mantfestatorf which commits its
^gs to the grub of a wild bee inhabiting the bottom of
deep holes bored in posts and rails, the ovipositor is

' Reaum. u. 439. " Ibid. 415. MoufTet 57.

' Hist, Ins. Pr»C xv. ^ C«. Cant. 137.

• Sec above, p. 164*—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS* 211

nearly an inch and half in lengthy and in some extra-
European species three inches. How the egg is pro-
pelled SO as to. pass in safely from the oviduct, along this
extended and very slender instfument to the ^ub for
which it is destined, has not been certainly ascertained ;
but from an observation of Reaumur's ^ it should seem
that it is aided in its passage by some fluid ejected at the
same time with it, or is so lubricated as to slide easily with-
out being displaced. The flies we are speaking of by
some authors are called Musccs vibrantes, because when
searching for the destined nidus of their eggs their an-
tennas vibrate incessantly, and it is by the use of these
wonderful organs that they discover it wherever it lurks.
Bergman observed that Fomus Jactdator searches for the
latent grub of certain bees and odier Hymefwptera with
its antennae^: and from Mr. Marsham we learn that
Pimpla ManifestatoTj before it inserts its ovipositor in the
nest of the grub of Chelostoma maxillosa^ explores it first
with one antenna and then with the other, plunging
them all the while intensely quivering up to the very root ^.*
With respect to their size^ Ichneumons vary greatly;
some being so extremely minute as to be invisible to the
naked eye, unless moving upon glass ; while others, as to
their lengthy emulate the giants amongst insects. The
former, unless appropriated to. the eggs themselves, usu-
ally commit many eggs to a single larva, while the latter
are directed by their instinct to introduce into them only
one. Some, of the former description are endowed with
the &culty of leaping^. The food of Ichneumons, and

' Rcaum. vL 306. »> Fn, Suec. Um.

<" Linn. Trans, m. 26. ^ De Geer i. 608. Linn^ has

made a aiistake with regard to the Ichneumon here alluded to, in
calling De Geer's saltatorious Ichneumon /. Mmcaruw, and referring

P 2

212 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

indeed of other internal parasites, is cliiefly the epiploon
Or fat of the larva, but tliey never touch any vital organ;
SO that it continues to feed, and probably more voraci-
ously, grow, cast its skin, and often it changed to a chry-
salis, although at the same time inhabited by an army of
these little devourers.

Ichneumons, as far as has been at present ascertained,
are parasitic upon other insects chiefly in their three first
states, a solitary instance only having been observed of
their inhabiting an imago ; but from their first exclusion
as eggs from the ovary till their assumption of that state
they give them no rest. I shall therefore first treat of
those that infest the eggs; next those appropriated to
larxKBs and lastly those that devour pupae.

. Vallisnieri appears to have been the first naturalist who
discovered that Ichneumons were appropriated to the
eggs of other insects. He observed one proceed from those
of the emperor-moth {Saturniapavonia) : finding two holes
in each egg, one larger than the other, he conjectured
that one was made when it entered, and the other when
it emerged. In this case the egg of the Ichneumon must
be fixed on the outside of the egg it was to feed upon ;
though some appear to pierce it with their ovipositor,
and consequently introduce their egg within : for he says
afterwards ; " I have seen with my own eyes a certain
kind of wild flies deposit their eggs upon other eggs, and
bore and pierce others with an aculeus — ^by which they
have introduced the egg*." Count Zinanni, a corre-
spondent of Reaumur's, saw an Ichneumon pierce the

for it to t. xxxii./. 19, 20 of that author; whereas the Ichneumon
that preys upon the aphidivorous flies does not jump, and is figured
by De Geer 605. U xxxi\ ./. 26—29. The jumping one feeds on thet
larva ai a Coccineiia, » Vallisnieri Letters, &c. 80,

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 215

^gs with her ovipositor repeatedly ; which in about fif-
teen days were filled with the pupa, and in six more pro-
duced the imago ^. /. Ovulorum is the only known species
of egg-devourers ; but most likely there are many, vary-
ing in size, according to the size of the egg they inhabit
Probably /. Atomus L., and /. Punctum Shaw, are of this
description **. It is wonderful what a number these little
flies destroy : — out of a mass of more than sixty eggs
which was brought to De Geer, not one had escaped the
Ichneumon^. But the most extraordinary thing is, that
even these little creatures we are told are destroyed by
another still more minute*^.

Though the animals we are speaking of usually de-
stroy only a single egg, yet some appear not so to con-
fine themselves. Geof&ey inforfns us that the larva of
one of the Ichneumons whose females are without wings
(Cryptus F.) devours the eggs of the nests of spiders, and
from its size — it is nearly a quarter of an inch long — it
must require several of them to bring it to maturity *. One
of those also which destroys the gnat infesting the wheat
(/. inserens K.) appears to devour them in their egg state,
and could not be brought to perfection by the food that
a single one would furnish ^.

The Ichneumons that are parasitic upon larvie are
the most numerous of all. Some of them are deposited
by the parent fly on the outside of their prey, and others
introduced into its interior. Ophion luteus F. is one of
the former tribe ; it plants its eggs in the. skin of the ca-
terpillar of the puss-moth {Cerura Vinula), Each egg is

* Reaum. vi. 296^. ^ Linne evidently has described
another species under /. Ovulorum^ in Fn, Suec. 1644.

' De^Geer L 693—. <* N. Diet d'Hist. Nat. vi. 10.

• Gcoflfr. Hist. Ins. Par, ii. 361. ' Linn. Trmns. v. 102—. "

214 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

famished with a footstalk terminating in a bulb*, which
is so deeply and firmly fixed that it is impossible to ex-
tract it without detaching a portion of the animal with
it, and even when the caterpillar changes its skin it is not
displaced. After it is hatched, the grub, while feedings
keeps its posterior extremity in the egg-shell, to which
it adheres so pertinaciously, that it is scarcely possible
to disengage it without crushing it. It fixes itself by its
mandibles to the skin of the caterpillar, and keeps con-
stantly sucking the contents of its body till it dies : some-
times nine or ten of these larvae inhabit a single caterpil-
lar ^. Reaumur has given an account of other external Ich-
neumons. Upon one caterpillar that he examined, they
were so numerous as to render the poor animal quite a
spectacle, and they underwent their metamorphosis at-
tached to it ^. One species of this description avenges the
cause of insects upon their most pitiless foes, the all-de-
vouring spider — for in theimidst of her toils and lines of
circumvallation it makes her its prey. De Geer, meeting
one day with a young spider of a common kind, observed
with surprise, engaged in sucking it, a small white grub,
which was firmly attached to the abdomen near the trunk.
Putting it by in a glass, after some days he examined it
again; when he observed that it had spun the outline of
a vertical web, had stretched threads firom.the top to the
bottom of the glass and fi*om one side to the other, and
had also spun the radii that meet in the centre, and this
was all ; — but what was remarkable, the larva that had
fed upon it was suspended in the centre of this web,
where it was engaged in spinning its own cocoon, while

• Plate XX. Fig. 22. a. ^ De Geer ii. 850—.

'^ Reaum. ii. 444 —

I>1$£AS£S OF 1NS£CT$. 215

the spider, exhausted by this last effort, had &Uen dead
to the bottom c^ the glass. It cannot be asserted posi*
tively that this suspension of the larva of the Ichneumon
in the centre of the web always takes place ; but if it does,
as seems most probable, it shows that this little parasite
is endowed with an instinct which causes it so to act upon
the spider as may induce it to spin a web so nicely timed
as to be sufficiently complete at the period of its death
and of the change of the Ichneumon, for the latter to cast
it down and assume its station*.

But the great bulk of the parasitic Hy menopterous de-
vourers of larvae have tlieir assigned station ^within the bo-
dy. As Entomologists in breeding insects have paid their
principal attention to Lepidoptera^ it necessarily follows
that their Ichneumon infestors must be most generally
known ; but doubtless the larvae of the other Orders are
not wholly liberated from this scourge : they also require
to be kept within due limits, and have their appropriate
parasites. Some, however, in most of them have been
detected ; of which I shall now proceed to state to you
the moat interesting examples, bf^ginning with the Co*
Uoptera*

Ahfsia Manducator Latr. \ remarkable for having man*
dibulae that do not close, and toothed at the end, usually
attends masses of dung, both of man and cattle, probably
for the purpose of depositing its eggs in some of the C(h
Uopterous larvae that inhabit it. Mr. Stephens, one of the
most accurate observers as well as one of the best Ento*
mologists of the present day, informs, me that he once
captured three specimens of Timarcha tenebricosa, from

* Dc Geer ii. 863—. ^ Panzer Fn. Germ. InU, Ixxii. 4,

216 DISEASES OF IKSEGTS.

efM^h of which forty or fifty minute Ichneumons emerged.^
An insect also of this Order, that is a great benefactor to
mankind, as a destroyer of the plant-lice, — I mean the la--
dy-bird {Coccitiella), in its larva state is itself subject to the
attack, as we learn from De Geer, of one of these small
parasites*. He detected them also in that of two species
of weevils {Curculio L.) : and in the pupa of some large
grub of a beetle inhabiting the wood of the elm, perhaps
that of the stag-beetle, he found the pupa of one of those
Ichneumons that have an exserted ovipositor^. Doubt-
less, did we know their history, we should find that num-
berless species have their internal assailants belonging to
this tribe.

Orthqpterous larvae seem not to have been yet an-
nounced as affording a pabulum to these animals : but
the late Dr. Arnold, whose tact for observation with re-
gard to the manners and economy of insects has rendered
his lo;;s irreparable, discovered that the remarkable pa-
rasitic genus Evania F. was appropriated to the all-
devouring Blatta. Whether it attacked it in its egg or
larva state I have not been informed. This little bene-
factor is here extremely rare, at least in the country; per-
haps intcmms^ where the cock-roach abounds, it may be
more common.

The observations of naturalists have chiefly been con-
fined to the Hemipterous genus Aphis ; but these early
attracted their notice. Leeuwenhoek has given a par-
ticular and entertaining account of the proceedings of
/. Aphidum L. As soon as the little flies approached
their prey, they bent their abdomen, which is rather
long, between their legsi so that the anus projected be-

» D« Gerr. i. 583-^. ii. «j?2- . 007. ** Rewim. vj. 3J2.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 217

yond the head ; then with their ovipositor they pierced
the body of the Aphis, at the same time carefully avoid-
ing all contact with it in every other part : whenever they
succeeded in their attempt, a tremulous motion of the
abdomen succeeded. Only a single e^ is committed to
one Aphis: when hatched, the latter becomes very smooth
and appears swelled; it is, however, full of life, and moves
when touched. Those that are thus pricked separate
themselves from their sound companions, and take their
station on the underside of a leaf. After some days the
inclosed grub pierces the belly of the Aphis, and at-
taches the margin of the orifice to the leaf by silken
threads ; upon this it dies, becomes white, and resembles
a brilliant bead or pearl *• De Geer observed also an
Ichneumon on the Coccus of the elm, /. Coccorum L^.

Amongst the Neuropterous tribes likewise, probably
the Ichneumonida commit their usual ravages ; but their
exploits, as far as I recollect, have met with no historian.
I have a small species related to Ckelonus Jur., which a
memorandum made when I took it tells me was obtained
from JEskna viatica, - yet I do not remember ever tracing
that species to its final change, so that I must have taken
this Ichneunion from the perfect insect. It suffices, how-
ever, to prove that this tribe is also exposed to the attack
of these parasites. Where larvae and pupae are aquaticy
it seems probable, if any attack is made upon them, that
it must take place after they have quitted the water.

In the Hymenoptera Order itself, almost every genus
has been ascertained to have its Ichneumon parasites.
Not even the fortified habitations of the gall-flies (C^

* Leeuwenh. Epist, Oct. 6, 1700. De Geer ii. 869.
^ Ibid. i. 604.

218 |U8JPi^E9 OJS INS£CTfi»

nips &) can eacape them, idmost every species beeomiog
their prey; a circumstance which puzzled not a little
some of the older naturalistSi when they at one time saw
a fly not remarkable for its colours or brilliancy emerge
fiom the curious moss-like Bedeguar of the wild rose^
and at another were struck by the aj^pearance of one of
those splendid minims of nature which almost dazzle the
sight of the beholder*. Immunity, however, from this
pest seems to have been granted to the gregarious Hy^
menopterai at least none has yet been discovered to at-
tack the aniv the wasp, the humble-bee, or the hive*bee;
in which last, had there been one appropriated to it, it
could never have escaped the notice of the Reaumurs and
the Hubers. The solitary bees, however, as we have seen
above ^, do not escape ; and Epipone spinipes^ a solitary
Wftsp which feeds its own young with a number of green
caterpillars ^, is itself when a larva, though concealed in
a deep burrow, the prey of the grub of an IdmeumcHi,
which by means of a long ovipositor introduces its ^gg
into its body ^* Even these parasites, whose universal of-
fice it is in their first state to prey upon insects, are them-
selves subject to the same malady. Ichneumonidan de-
vourers are kept in check by other Ichneumonidan devoiir-
ers* These in some cases are so numerous as to destroy
the tithe of the kinds they attack ^. Thus an ever-watch-
ful Providence prevents these parasites from becomii^
so numerous as to annihilate in any place the species ne-
cessary for the maintenance of the general economy and
proportion of animal and vegetable productions. Amongst

• Rai. HUt. Ins. 259—. ^ See above, p. 209 ; and Vol. I. p. 354.
« Ibid. 346. «" Reaum. vi. 303—.

« iWrf. ii. 454—.

]>I8KA8BS OF INSECTS. 219^

the assailants of the Hymenoptera^ none seem to have a
more laborious task assigned them than those that pierce
the various galls in which the larvae of the Qfnips tribe
are inclosed. To look at an oak-apple, we should think
it a work of difficulty, requiring much sagacity and ad-
dress, for one of our little flies to discover the several
diambers lurking in its womb, and to direct their ovi*
positor to each of them. Its Creator, however, has
enabled it instinctively to discover this, and furnished it
with an appropriate elongated instrument, which will
open a way to the deep and hidden cells in which the
grubs reside, penetrate their bodies, and to each commit
an e^. When it prepares to perforate the gall, the Ich-
neumon begins by depressing this organ, that it may ex-
ytiicate it from its sheath ; it next elevates its body as high
as possible, and bending the instrumeilt till it becomes
perpendicular to the body and to the gall, so as to touch
the latter with its point, it then gradually plunges it in,
till it is quite buried*. A very remarkable Hymenopte-
rous parasite {Leucospis\ which when unemployed turns
its ovipositor over the back of its abdomen, so that its
end points to its head, is said to deposit its eggs in the
nest of the mason-bee^ most probably in the larva : but
the curious observations that are stated to have been
made by M. Am^d^e Lepelletier upon its hbtory have
not yet been given to the public^.

Dipterous insects, like¥dse, do not escape from these
pests of their Class : but few observations, however, have
been recorded as to the species assailed by them. We
learn from De Geer, that a gnat {Cecidomyia Juniperi\

« De Geer. ii. 870-. «» N.Dict.tTHisi, Nat. xvii. 613.

220 0I8BASKS OF INSECTS.

which foixns galls upon the juniper isdevoured by an ex-
ternal Ichneumon^ ; that which injures the wheat in the
ear, whose ravages I formerly mentioned to you**, af-
fords food to three of these parasites, — one I lately men-
tioQed as probably devouring its eggs ; another pierces
the glumes of the floret, where its destined prey is con-
cealed ; and the third enters it. I once placed a number
of the larvae of the gnat upon a sheet of paper, at no
great distance from each other, and then set down one
of these last Ichneumons in the midst of them. She be-
gan immediately to pace about, vibrating her ant^inas
very briskly : a larva was soon discovered, upon which
she fixed herself, the motion of her antennae increasing
intensely ; then bending her abdomen obliquely under
her breast, she inserted her ovipositor, and while the
egg was depositing these organs became perfectly mo-
tionless. The larva when pricked gave a violent wriggle.
This operation was repeated with all that had not al-
ready received an egg, for only one is committed to each
larva. I have of);en seen it mount one that was already
pricked, but it soon discovered its mistake, and quitted
it untouched^. The only other Dipterous insects that I
have seen mentioned as affording pabulum to an Ich-
neumon, are— one of the aphidivorous flies mentioned by
De Geer, who does not note the species, to the larva of
which the Ichneumon commits only a single egg, pro-
ducing a grub that entirely devours its interior** ; — and
two described by Scopoli, one, the larva of a^frequent-

• De Geer vi. 411—. »» Vol. I. p. 170.

' Xtiin. Trant. iv. 5^36. ^ De Geer i. 605. This, as be-

fore obsenredy is not the /. Muscarum of Linii^ ; but it ought to have
that namcy and the other instead to be named /. CocdneUm,

DISEASES OP INSECTS. 221

ing hemp ; and the other, which feeds on a Boletus^ that
ofagnat^.

The Lepidx)ptera^ however, is the Order over tlie larvae
of which the Ichneumons reign with undisputed sway ;
attacking all indiscriminately, from the minute one that
forms its labyrinth within the thickness of a leaf, to thie
giant caterpillar of the hawk-moth. The most useful of
all, however, the silk-worm, appears, at least with iis, ex-
empted from this scourge. De Geer, out of fifteen larvae
that were mining between the two cuticles of a rose-lea^
belonging to the first tribe here alluded to, found that
foitii'teen were destroyed by one of these parasites, only
one coming forth to display itself in all its brilliancy and
miniature magnificence^. One of the most useful to us
is that which destroys the clothes-moth, which the same
writer also traced*^. Another, equally serviceable, takers
up its abode in the caterpillar that ravages our cabbages
and brocoli {Pieris Brassicce\ which perish by hundreds
from ks attacks. As this falls frequently under oiu* no-
tice, it will not be uninteresting to give a fuller account
of it. Reaumur has traceil and related its whole history.
One of these little flies that he observed, was so intent
lipon the business in which she was engaged, that she
suffered him to watch her motions under a lens, without
being discomposed. . She pursued nearly the same plan
of proceeding with that of the Ichneumon of the wheat-
gnat just described ; except that she repeated her opera-
tions frequently on the same caterpillar in different paJrts,
alternately plunging in and extracting her ovipositor*
She seemed to prefer the spot where the segments of the
body are united, particularly where the eighth meets the

• Ent. Cam, 760, 761. " De Geer L 587-

« Ibid, ii. 876--.

i^ DISEASES OF INSECTS*

ninth, and the ninth the tenth. When the fly had com''*
pleted its work and quitted the caterpillar, Reaumur
gave it food, and it did not sieem less lively and vigorous
than others of its kind : in less than a fortnight it as-
sumed the pupa ; and in four days, the whole of its inte^
rior being devoured, it died: but its parasites, perhaps
not findhlg a sufficient supply of nutriment in it, never
came to perfection^* Sometimes, however, these litde
grubs arrive at maturity before the caterpillar has be-
come a chrysalis, when they pierce the skin and begin to
emerge. First appears a little white tubercle, which gra-
dually elevates itself in a direction perpendicular to the
body: while this is doing, a second appears in another
place; and so on, till fifteen or sixteen are seen on each
side, giving the caterpillar a very grotesque appearance*
By the alternate contraction and relaxation of their bo-
dies the grubs effect their complete liberation, wfaidi takes
place, with respect to the whole, in less than half an hour*
When entirely disengaged, they place themselves close
to the sides of the caterpillar: even before this they be-
gin spinning, and draw unequal threads in different di-
rections, of which they form a cottony bed, which serves
as the base of the separate cocoon of each individual,
which they next construct of a beautiful silk thread of a
lovely yellow, which, if it could be unwound and in suffi-
cient quantity, would yield a silk unrivalled in lustre and
fineness^*

De Geer has recorded a very singular &ct which de-
serves your notice. An Ichneumon, appropriated to one
of the TortficeSf had deposited its eggs in two of their
caterpillars; each produced a considerable number; but

• Reaum. ii.-4l7— •» IM. 419-.

DISEASES OF IKSCCTS* 2S$

those that emerged from one were aXLfimaleSy and those
from the other, fnale$\ He observed a simQai* fact take
place with Misocampus Puparum ^. One might conjecture
fit>m*this circumstance, that as in the queen-bee^, so in
these Ichneumons, the eggs producing the two sexes were
arranged separately in the ovaries. Reaumur has re*
lated, that in one instance three or four males were pro*
duced to one female ; and in another four or five females
to one male^.

But though the great majority of insects are subject to
this Scalechiasis^ in their larva state, yet sometimes they
are not attacked by the Ichnewnon till they have become
pupa. Of this kind is one just mentioned {M* Ptepartm\
which commits its eggs to the chrysalis of the butterfly of
the nettle, Vanessa Urtica: the moment this caterpillar
quits its skin to assume that state, while it is yet soft they
{Herce it and confide to it their eggs ^» De Oeer and
others have supposed that this same Ichneumon attacks
the Coed and CoeeinelUe^ : but this probably is an erro»
neous supposition. Cryptus Compunctor F. also atCadcs
the pupae of butterflies**.

If we consider the great purpose of Providence in
giving being to this tribe of destroyers — the keeping of
insects within their proper limits, — ^we may readily con-
ceive that this purpose is more e£Pectually answered by
destroying them iii their preparatory than in their tiZ/t-
mate state, since at that time the laying of their eggs and
a future progeny could not so e&ctually be prevented ; —

> De Gear i. 583—. ^ Ibid. ii. 884.

<^ See above, p. 158. * Reaum. vi. 312.

* Vol. I p. 99. ' De Geer M wpr.

f Ibid, 883. *> Lmn, Fn. Suec.)e&9l^

894 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

this.wiU account for there being few or no Ichneumon^
9ppropriated to them in their latter state.

The next tribe of insect parasites are to be found in
the Diptera Order. The species that has been particu-
larly noticed as such is the Musca Larvarum L. ; its larva
is polyphagous, laying its eggs upon the bodies of cater-
pillars of different kinds. Sometimes a pair is placed on
the first segment, sometimes on the head itself, and some-
times near the anus. These eggs are very hard, convex,
of an oval figure, polished and shining like a mirror.
They are fixed so firmly that if you attempt to remove
them with a penknife the skin comes off with them.
When hatched, they enter the body and feed on the in-
terior, and, undergoing their metamorphosis within it, da
not emerge till they enter their perfect state. The cater-
pillar thus attacked lives long enough to spin its cocoon,
when it dies*. Sometimes, however, these animals quit
their prey sooner. Reaumur saw a grub of one of the
Muscidce come out of a caterpillar, and then become a
pupa, which was so large that he wondered how it could
have been contained in the animal it had quitted^.

We have now done with tJiose parasites that produce
in insects the disease I have called Scolechiasis^ i the
rest, which belong to the Aptera Order,, will afford us
examples both of Phthiriasis and Acariasis^.

I begin with the^r^^. Mr. Sheppard once brought
me a specimen of a bird-louse {Nirmus) which he took
upon a butterfly {Vanessa lo) : and should such a capture
be more than once repeated, it would afford a certain
instanceof theirs/ of these diseases amongst insects; — but

■ Reaum. ii. 443. De Geer i. 196—, 650—. vi. 24.

»» Reaum. ii. 440—. «= Vol. I. p. 99. ^ Ibid. 84, »7.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 225

most probiMy the specimen in question had dropped
from sQme bird upon the butterfly. The only remaining
animal belonging to the apterous hexapods that is para-
sitic on insects, is by many supposed to be the larva of a
giant beetle {Meloe Proscarabeetts), I have before alluded
to this animal^, and shall now resume the subject Ooe-
dart, Frisch, and De Geer, observed that it deposited in
the earth one or two considerable masses, containing an
infinite number of very minute orange»coloured eggs
adherii^ to each other, which in about a month were
hatched, and produced a number of small hexapods dis-
tinguished by two pairs of anal setae and a proleg, by
means of which they could move readily upon glass, as I
have myself seen : these litde animals precisely corre-
ponded with one found by the latter author upon S^rphm
intricaria ; and when that fly was placed amongst them,
they^immediately attached themselves to it, so as to leave
no doubt of their identity''. A congenerous species had
been detected upon wild bees, and described by Linn6
under the name of Pediculus Apis. De Geer is so
thoroughly to be depended upon for his veracity and ac-
curacy of observation, that we cannot suppose there is
any incorrectness in his statement. If the mass of eggs
be, as he represents it, of the size of a hazel-nut, it must
have been the product of a very large insect : in confir-
mation of this opinion it may be further observed, that
the larva of the kindred genus Cantharis Latr. agrees
with it in having anal setae, though it appears to diffisr
in having only two conspicuous segments in the trunk ^.
Those which infest wild bees make their first appearance

• Vol. I. p. 162. note *=. Vol. III. p. 163. note »•.
»» De Geer v. 8—. * Naturf, xxiii. t. ?./. 8.

VOI-. IV. e

^6 I>JS£ASES OF INSECTS.

upon acrid plants, whidi the MeloeVik^lge feecU upoa^
from whaice with wonderful tgilky they leap upoii the
.Andrefkgf &c. that visU fiiese flowers. Strong, however,
-as all these &cl& appear, still we cannot help exdaiming
"with the iliiuitrious Swede last named. Who could ever
have imagified that the larva of this great beetle would
be feund upon the body of JUesjr^md we may add, or
bees t Who could ever imagine that it would feed lijke
a bfrd4ouse and resemble it so closely ? that in the in-
sertion of its palpi it should exhibit a character ea^cfur-
sweb/ helonf^g to that tribe ^? Another circumstance
seems to indicate that these hexapods at the time that
they take their station in bees or flies tire perfect insects
•^^they do not vary in size, at least not ipat^ially. Where,
we may also ask, if they are to bec(»ne Iftrge beetles,
where do they take their principal growth ? It cannot
be as parasites on the little bees or flies that they are
usnaUy found upon ; they must soon desert them, and
like, their kindred blister-beetles, as is itiost probable,
have recourse to vegetable food. What an tgipmaly in
rerum natura / It 13 much to be wished that some skil-
ful insect-anatomist would car^IIy dissect the Meloe; or
peiiiaps by digging round the roots of the ranunculuses
and othtf acrid plants the larva of that beetle might be
-discovered in a later stage of growth, and so this mystery
be cleared up. I should observe here, that Scopbli has
described three parasites as Pediadi; viz, P. rostrcUus,
coccineusj and Cerambycinus: the first of which Fabricius
has adopted under the name of P. GryUotalpa, but which
are all evidently hexapod Acarina^.

• N. IMct, d*Hist, NhL xx. 110—. •» Ent. Cam. 1055^—4.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 227

Acd^riasis seems a disease almost as universal amongst
insects as Scolechiasis ; with this difference however, that
Acarimost commonly take their station upon them in their
perfect state. You have doubtless often observed the com-
mon dung-beetles ( Geotrupes Latr.) covered on the under-
side of their body with small mites {Gamasus'Coleoptrato-
rumlMr.) which look as if they were engaged in suction
— ihey are often so numerous that no part is uncovered ;
they also attadc other beetles^, and are sometimes found
on hudible^bees. They are easily disturbed, run with
great swifliiess, and may oft^n be seen in hot-beds and
fermentmg dung prowling in search of the ' stercora-
rious beetles; But the most remarkable insect o( this
kind is the Uropoda vegetans : it derives its nutriment
from (he insects it assails not by it&mouth^ but by means
c^ a long anai pedicle by which it is attached to them.
I>e Geer foun<l these in such numbers upon a species of
Lepturn, ^9X its whole body was almost coveted with
thein; they hung from the legs and antennae in bunches,
and gave the animal a most hideous and disgusting ap-
pearance. Under this load of vermin it could scarcely
walk or move, and all its efforts to get rid of thieiri were
in vain : many were attached to its body and to each
other by their anal pedicles, but others had cast them
off and were walking about When put into a glass
tiirith earth, they began to abandon their prey, so that
in a few days it was qivite freed from its plagues. He
found ^hat these parasites lived long in alcohoP.

If you inquire — How are these mites originally fixed by
their pedicles ? it seems most probable, that as the He^

* Hister particularly. ^ De Geer vii. 126 — .

S2

228 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

inerobiif when they lay their eggs, know how to place
them upon a kind of footslalk, so the parent Ura^^la'
has the same power; and this pedicle appears to act the
part of an umbilical chord, conveying nutriment to the
foetus not from a placenta^ but from the body of the in-,
sect to which it is attached; till having thus attained a
certain maturity of growth and structure, ' it dis<aigages.
itself and becomes locomotive. Many e^s of the aquar-
tic Acarina {Hydrachna^ &c.) are also fumii^ed with a
short pedicle by which they are fixed to Dytisci and.
other water insects. De Geer found some of this de-
scription on the underside of the water-scorpion, so
thickly set as to leave no void space : they were oval, of
a very bright red, and of different sizes on dififerent indi-
viduals ; whence it was evident diat they grow when thus
fi&ed: when hatched or released — for perhi^s they may
be regarded as fcetuses in their amnios rather than eggs
— they cease to be parasitical. Let us admire, on this
occasion, (piously observes this great EntomoL^^t,) the
diffisrent and infinitely varied means by which the Au-.
THOR of Nature has endowed animals, particularly in-
sects, for their propagimon and preservation : for it is a
most extraordinary sight to see eggs grow, and pump as
it were their nutriment fi'om the body of another living
animal ^. As these mites are fixed to the crust as well as
its inosculations, they must have some means of forcing
their nutriment through its por^.

Another insect, remarkable for its resemblance in some,
respects to the scorpion — ^called in this country the book-
45rab {Chelifer cancroides\ fi-om its being sometimes found.

«

• De Gcer vii. 144 — .

DISEASES OF IK&fECTS. 229

in books— occasionally is parasitic upon flies, especially
the common blne-tottle-fly [Musca vomitoria). They
adhere to it very pertinaciously under the wings ; and if
you attempt to disturb them, they run backwards, for-
wards, or sideways, with equal facility.

2. We now come to a perfectly distinct tribe of in-
sect parasites, which belong to that section or order of
intestinal worms which Rudolph has denominated En-
tozoa neniatoidea, and Lamarck Vers rigidulesK To
this tribe belong the Gordim of Linne and the Filaria
of modem zoologists, which from the experiments and
observations of De Geer, Dr. Matthey, &c. appear to have
been too hastily separated, being really congenerous, and
living indifierently in water and in the intestines of in-
sects and oliier animals^. To this genus belong the
gidnea-^worm {Gbrdius medinensis L.^), the Riria infer-
nalis L., and' several others that are found in various
vertebrate animals. These little worms have been dis-
covered in' insects of almost every Order; and their at-
tack generally produces the death of the animal, though
they appear not to devour those parts that are essential
to life^. I mice took a specimen of Harpahis azureuSf
and upon iminersii^ it in bailing water I was surprised
to see what at first I mistook for an intestine, thrust itself
fortli ; but upon a nearer inspection, to my great sur-
prise I found it was one of these worms, thicker than a
horse-hiair and of a brpwn colour. Mr. W. S. MacLeay

■ Lamarck Anim* sans Vert^ iii. 196.

* DeGeerii. 554 — . ¥\ctet BibUoiheq, Univers, num. ult.

'^ The existence of this animal has been satisfactorily ascertained
by M. de Blainville, who had a specimen, extracted from a humam
body, sent him by M. Girard, a surgeon of Guadaloupe.

•* De Geer ii. 555.

230. PISEASES OF INSECTS.

also once fpunid one Ui Alwe striold. It still J^eijiiidBS m
my; $pecini)^j making it Appear as it it bad a long tail,
De G^er long ago found these worms in grasshoppeirs^ ;
but Dr- Mattbey.has given the Mlest accoimt c^ one
which infested Acrida viridismna. ' A friend of his no
tic4ng on^e of these insects which had not strength enough
to leap and could scarcely even walk^ being struck with
th^ circumstance) caught the ahimaly iipon which its hind
legs ^ere. immediately detached from it His surprise
was greatly increased when he saV k'sue fr'om its bddy a
cylindrical worm about twd fibet and ahalf in lengdi. Upon
being caUed, Dr, M. soon recognised it for a Gardim or
Mhriaj and on. his putting it. into watery it movedin it
with great velocity^ twisting its long, and slender body in
all directions* . Upoii^ opeliing the body of the .'gmss-^
hoppery. notbijlig (appeared within it but die intestine
shrunk up fo a thread* Afew days after^ another/wss
brought, which appeared iii fiill vigomv but its abdamen
was enonhously^diflt^ded, atid frdm'itamxdier-wormwas
fsctsradtedy jiRhich. trained widbout motion rcdled in. a
spiral direction : intending 'to preserve thb in spirits of
wine— *as it had beclmie flat he first immersed it in wiater,
that it might recover tf possibk its tsylindrical foxmu
Upon immersion a movement took place in the animal^
and it gradually recovered its plumpness; but it still re^
main^d withdut motion, as if dead, for nearly five days,
when aiiother living specimen being brought and placed
with it, as soon as water was poured on them, the seem-
ingly dead one began to show by a slight oscillation in
its extremities that life was not extinct in it. Fresh wa-

'^ De Geer ii. 555.

. mS£A8£« OF IKSECTS; 281

fer beixig poured iipoait^ at the end of the day.it had
recovered all its strength and.agflily* He afterwards
often repeated the same experiment with a similar re*
siitt^ '' IVom this account it appears that the Gordius or
iF&rria'has a property resembling that of the Vibrio. Trt*
tidy so wi^ described and so beautifully figured by
M. Bauer ''y of apparently dying and being resuscitated
by immen^on in water. How long it can retain this
(woperty remains to be ascertamed.

De Geer states that he had seen them of the length of
two feet ^; but they vary considerably in this respect In
ant^ ia' which Gould detected them, he states their
length to be not more than half an inch^. In caterpil*-
iarg, whicb they sometimes infest, th^y are longer; in
ti^tt of Beimb^ ZiczaCf De Geer found one three inches
and a halflong ®; and Rosel three, (^ six inches, in that of
SpJUnxEitiphojrbue <*; and in Phalangium comutum^ accqrd-
ing to Latreill^ they extend to more than seven inches^.
In the larva of a Phryganea L* the author first named
foimdone whidi was mcM*e than a foot long, correspond*
ing exactly with the Gordius aquaticus of Linn6; being
forked at one extremity, brown above, gray:below, and
blaek at each end^; Thei;e apimals appear to die as soon as
tbey leave the body * they h^e preyed up<»i; except this
fai^pens in water, when their activity has no r^ose. In
this dement they give their bodies every possible in-
flexion, often tying themselves in knots in various places^

* Matthey M lupr. ^ Phiios. Trans. 18^. 8. tA. ii.
"" De Geer ii. 556. ^ Gould AnU, 63.

* De Geer i. 551. ^ Rosel I. iii. 20.

^ Latr. Fourmis, 373. »» De Geer ii. ubi supr. t. xiv./. 12—14.

* Ilnd. i. 553.

232 DISEASES OF INSECl'S.

interlacing and twisting thetnsdttes in a hnndred diffisrent
ways; so that when confined in the body of an insect,
from their extreme suppleness and power of contortion
they find sufficient space wherein to pack their often
enormous length*. Linne makes one of their habitats
clay ; and Mr. W. S. MacLeay finds them very, common
at Putney in clay at the bottom of pools. '

Dr.' Matthey asks — How does the Gordius get into
Locusta viridissima^? And De Geer— Why do they die
after having quitted a caterpillar? and where do they
perpetuate their species^? These questions, without
further observations, cannot easily be answered. How*
ever, it may be supposed that camiyoxous insects, such as
Harpali, &c. may swallow ttem when found apparently
dead in clay, where the water has been evaporated, or
when they have bee& ejected by other insects; and. they
may revive in their bodies, as Dr. Matthey found them
to do in water. It is not difficult to conjecture that the
larvae of Phiyganete may meet with them when, young in
the water, and sometimes unluckily swallow them with
their food. Why they become as dead when they emerge
from their prey we cannot at present conjecture ; but no
doubt to answer some wise purpose ; — in rainy seaaons
they probably revive and get into little hollows fiill of
rain-^water. Upon De Geer's last question — How they
perpetuate their i^cies-*-at present I can oflfer no con-
jecture*

* De Geer ii. 656. /. xiv./. \2, 13. * Ubi ttipra.

• De Geer i, 553.

LETTER XLV.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

At first one woald think that the senses of insects
m^bt he described m very few words, and scarcely af-
ford matter for a separate letter ; but when we find that
physiologists are scarcely yet agreed upon this subject,
and that the use of some of their organs, which appear
to be organs of sensation, has not yet been satisfactorOy
ascertained — we shall not wonder that the sulqect requires
more discussion than at the first bludi we were aware of*
In treating on this subject I shall first say something on
the senses in general^ and then confine myself to those of
insects.

Touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight, I need not tell
you, is the usual enumeration of the senses : but as the
term includes every means of communication with the
external world, the list perhaps might be increased;
and there is ground for thinking that the number seven^
so signalized as a sacred number^, may also here have
place. Dr. Virey, an eminent physiologist, whose sen-
timents on various subjects I have before noticed with
approbatioii^, appears to be of opinion that there are

^ Vol. III. p. 15. note *. * Ibid. 5d— . See above, p. 26.

234 SENSES OF INSECTS.

really seven senses ; which he divides into those that are
altogether pkystcal^ and those that are more connected
with the intellect. The fifst of these divisions contains
Jbur senses, — ^touch, love, taste, and smell ;--the second
three, — Shearing, sight, and the internal sense of thought,
or the brain ^. That he is right in adding iGve^ to the
list seems to me evident, because it is as distinct from
touchy as smelling and taste are. With regard to the
other, though it may be expected that there should be
a transitive sense connecting the intellect (if I may 30
speak) with the external organ of sense;, and as a medium
by which the former can receive the notices of the external
world liimished by the latter ; yet it seems improper to
make the efUire brain itself a sense. We know that th^
agent between the common sensory and the sense is the
ccmsciousness or perception of the impression. << Seeing
we may see and notpev'ceiveiSLDdheaiing we may hear and
not understandJ^ The picture may be painted upon the
tetioa of ^ eye, the sound may strike upon the tympar
num of the ear ; but neither the one nor the other be r^
O^ved by the intellect, unl^S9 t^e internal power pi* fa-
culty of perception be in action a^d mediate between
them. This is what I mean by th^ internal ^ense, whjbdi,
to use a term of Mr. W. S* MacLeay's^, is osculant be-
tween intellect and seqase^ or forms the transit frpm oi|e
group of powers to the other*

Of the ordinary senses, sight holds the first rank : it
aandart to the region of the stars, and convey by the

» JV. Diet. d^Hiit. Nat. xxx. 584.

^ By love here is meant the physical act.

^ Hor. Entomolog. 37.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 23&

perceiving sensi^^ to the sensory, ideas of innumelrable ob-
jects. Next in rank is hearings which can receive sounds
from a great distance ; but the ideas it remitis are confined
cmly to one object, the variations of tones* In the other
CKTgans the sensitive power is much more confined. There
is another difference between the intellectual and physi-
cal senses : — ^the former are the only ones that receive
and convey sensations of the beautiful* and sublime; of
harmony and discord,~r-the latter, though they minister
more to. our sensual enjojnnents, add notluag to our
intellectoal ; and therefore too devoted an indulgence
in them debases our nature, and levels us with the brutes^
nf^ch .use their eyes and ears only for information, not
for pleasure^.

In man. the ordinary five senses are u^ally in their
greatest perfection, Although in some animais paridcnlar
senses have a.greater range. The Vertebrates in general
aee also gifted with the same number, th<Aigh daere are
aoDDJe eccceptions. But intheihver/^&^a^i €hey»re sel-
dontto be met with all tpgether in the same object. Hie
Cephalopods have jio smtH. Several Gaster6pods can
neither hear nor see. The animals of bivalve shells have
neither eyes, nor ears, nor smell ; and die^xtofrfiytes and
the races below them have, it is affirmed, only the single
sense oi touchy which in dnem is so extremdy delicate as
to be acted upon even by 7^^ ^

Not so our insects. These, there is good reason to be-
lieve, possess all the ordinary senses^ That they can
iee^ taiwhy taste, and smelly no one denies. Linn^ and

* -AT. IHcL d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 584—.
^ Cuv. Anat* Comp, ii. 362.

236 SENtBB.OF IMHECr&'

Bmuiiel^ hom&rery ihouf^t them dqavived of hearing^ ;
but numerous observiations prove the contrary. That
tbey hear in thieir larva state, is evident from facts stated
by the latter physiologist. He found that the sound of
his voice evidently affected scnne caterpillars ; which he
attributes, but surely without reason, to the delicacy of
their sense of touch : at another time, when some cater-
pillars of a different species were moving swifUy, he rang a
small bell; upon which they instantly stopped and moved
the anterior part of their body very briskly**. That
they possess this faculty in their imagb state is confirmed
still more strongly by &cts. I once was observing the
motions of an Apion under a pocket microscope : oii see-
ing me it receded. Upon my making a slight but; di-
stinct noise, its antennae started : I repeated the iKxse
several times, and invariably with the same effect A
Harpalus, which I was holding in my hand, answered
the sound in the same manner repeatedly. Flies^ I have
observed, at brisk and distinct sounds move all their
l^s; and spiders will quit their prey and retire to their
hiding places. Insects that live in society give notice
of intended movements, or assemble their citizens for
emifiration by a certain hum ^. But the most sati^iictory
;3of U» h»ri^ of 4e« »in^ i. .o I. W fj
^ose Otihqptera and Hemiptera whose males are vocal.
Brunelli kept and fed several males of Acrida imidissima
(a grasshopper with us not uncommon) in a closet, which
were very merry, and continued singing all the day ; but
a rap at the door would stop them instantly. By prac-
tice he learned to imitate their chirping : when he did

"" Sytt. Nal. i. 535. Bonnet (Euvr, ii. 36. ^ Ibid.

• Vol. II. p. 163.

tins at. die door, at. first a i*^ would rniswerhim in a

low. note,. and' then the. whole party would take up' the

taine.and.aing with all their, might. He once shut up.

ft.n»Ie in his garden, and gave the female her liberty ;

but as jsxxm as she heard the male.ckirp, she flew to him

iBUiiediately ^

But althou^.physiolc^sts are for the most part agreed

that insects have the ordinary five senses of vert^rate*
animals^ yet a great variety of opinions has obtakied as

to th^ir .external organs; so that it has been matter of
doubt, for instance, whether the antentue are for smell,^
touch, or hearing ; and thepalpi for smell, taste, or touch.
Nor has. the question, as it appears to me, been satisfac*
torily decided: for though it is now the most general
opimon that the primary use of antennae is to explore as
taclorSf yet by the most strenuous advocates of this opi-
mon they are owned jiot to be universally so employed;
so that granting this to be one of their principal functions,
yet it seems to follow that there may be anoth^ common
to them all, which of course would be ih&x primary func-
tion. . We are warned, however, not. to lay any stress
upon. the argument to be drawn from analogy; andtdd
that we might as well dispute about the identity of the
nose of a man, the proboscis of the elephant, the horn of
the rhinoceros, the crest of the cock, or the beak of the
toucan^. But this is merely casting dust in our eyes : for
though three of these are nasal organs, bearing nostrils :
the two others have no relation to the question, the horn
of the rhinoceros and the crest of the cock being merely
appendages^ and have no more analogy to the nose and

*■ Lehmann De Sens, Extern. AmmaL Exsang, 2fii — .
* Ibid. De ArUenn, Intect. ii. 79.

238 SENSES OF INtiECTS.

Bostrils, which co-exist with them, than they have to the
ejes or ears. I have on a former occasion observed, that
a gradual change sometimes takes place in the functiiuis
of particular txgaas ; but sttU, generally speaking, this
obserratioa regards secondary functions— rihe primary
usuaUy remaining untouched. We may say, for ini
with regard to the primary use of the legs <^ a
that it is locomotiffli ; wlSe the secondary is either walk-
ing rawnB^, jompaig, ffying, or swimming, according
to the circumstances and nature of the animal. Thus
the Jbre^gs of the Mammalia^ in birds become viings,
and hodi pair in jEiA are changed to^m. Again, the
primary use of the heart of animals is the elaboration of
the nutritive fluid ; its secondary, to be the organ of a
system of drcidation, by which thatfluid may alternately
receive and part wi& ox^en ; but in the dorsal vessd
of insects which is antdogous to the heart, the ctrculatioa
<;eases, the oxygienation of the blood being effected by
other means ; but still its primary iimctioi), the prepara-
tion of the nutritive fluid, as there is reason to thinlc, is
dischai^ged by it*. So that it seeins a law to which Na-
ture in most cases adheres. Observe, I do not say alwtn/s
and invariably, but in most cases,— that anaI<^ous parts
have analogous uses, at least as far as pritaary uses are
concerned. When, therefore, we cannot have demon-
strative evidence concerning the function of an organ
discoverable in any animal, we may often derive satis-
fiictory probable aipmients from the andogies ol^serva-
*-'- =~ their structure compared with that of other animals,
iming the nature of whose organs we have no doubt.

■ See above, p. 88, 90, note ' ; conip. p, 1 IS,

SENSES OF INSECTS. 2$9

In fact, the chkf evideoce we. bare Mf¥h. regard to the o^
flee of the organs of sense in the ammals immediatdy be*
low ourselves, is that of analogy ;«-^becau6e me see ivith
our eyes, hear with our ears, &c., we condude, witk rea*
son, that ^A^ do the same. .

In inquiring iherefore into what may-be the most ge*
neral.use of theanteni^ of insects, I shall endeavour to
discover whether there is any part in the h^h^ ammals
to which they may be deemed to exhibit aay axialogy.
And here I must refer you to what I have said on a fixr-
mer occasion upon thepre&enit subject; wh^ce Imade k
evident, I hope, that the great Imlk of the {Mots imd jcmt-
gans of insects, in this parttcnlar diSertB^&om the ma*
jority of Invert^rales^are^ sosoe in onevnBS{>ect,45ame in
anothei^ and some in many, really analogous to those df
:tliie3i%her animals^; and that a. great many of theoi,
though varying in their structure, have thejouneinnc*
tions*. Thus the analogues i of the.ejres. of Vertebifates
atefor seeing; of the jaws for ^masticaUng; of. the lips
(ox i^losing the mouth j, of the legs^ for walMtig^ &c» We
have seen also very recently, that a similar analogy, moise
or less strongly marked, holds also in their internal oTr
gans^ ; so that it may be safely affirmed, that if nU^the
invertebrate insects, though gifted with numerous pe-<-
culiarities, present the most striking picture of thoscani-
mals that have an internal skeleton, and more particular*
ly of the Mammalia^ — ^we may assume, it. as a probability,
the above circumstances being, allowed their due weighty
that where facts do not prove the contrary, the. function
of analogous organs is more or less synonymous,. though

» Vol. in. p. 43—. •» See above, p. 1—.

240 SENSES OF INSECTS.

perhaps the structure and modus operandi may^be dif^
ferent

In the letter lately referred to, I observed that the an-
tennae of insects are analogous to ears in Vertebrates*.
Their number corresponds ; they also stand out from the
head ; and what has weighed most with me, unless they
are allowed as such, no other organ can have any preten-
sion to be considered as representing the ear. If we re-
flect, that in every other part and organ, the head of in-
sects has an analogy to that of Mammalia^ we must re-
gard it as improbable that these prominent organs should
not also have their representative. Aduaitting then that
they are the analogues of ears, it will follow, not as de-
monstratively certain, but as probable, that their primary,
function maybe something related to hearing. I do not
say direct kearingf or that the vibrations of sound are
communicated to the sensorium by a complex structure
analogous to that of the internal ear in Mammalia — but
something related to hearing. I conceive that antennae^
by a peculiar structure, may collect notices from the at-
mosphere, receive pulses or vibrations, and communicate
them to the sensorium, which, though not precisely to be
called hearing, may answer the same purpose. From
the compound eyes that most of them have, the sense of
seeing in insects must be very different from what it is in
vertebrate animals ; and yet we do not hesitate to call it
sight: but since antennae, as we shall see, apparently
convey a mured sensation, I shall have no objection, ad-
mitting it as their primary frmction, to call it after Leh-
mann ASroscepsj/^. I lately related some instances of

■ Vol. in. p. 46. •» De Antenn, Intect, ii. 65 — .

SENSES OF INSECTS. 241

wwnd producing an effect on the antenna of insects : I
will now mention another that I observed, still more re-
markable. A little moth was reposing upon my window ;
I made a quiet, not loud, but distinct noise : the antenna
nearest to me immediately moved towards me. I re-
peated the noise at least a dozen times, and it was fol-
lowed every time by the same motion of that organ ; till
at length the insect being alarmed became more agitated
and violent in its motions. In this instance it could not
be touch; since the antenna was not applied to a surface^
but directed towards the quarter from which the sound
came, as if to listen. Bonsdorf made similar obsei*va-
tions, to which Lehmann seems not disposed to allow
their proper weight*. It has been used as an argument
to prove that antennae are primarily tactors, or instru-
ments oi touchy that Fcenus Jactdator^ before it inserts its
ovipositor, plunges its antenme into the hole forming
the nidus of the bee, to the grub of which it commits its
egg^. But had those who used this argument measured
the antennae and the ovipositor of this ichneumon, thiey
would have discovered that the latter is thrice the length
of the former : and as these insects generally insert it so
that even part of the abdomen enters the hole, it is clear
that the antenna cannot touch the larva ; its object there-
fore cannot be to explore by that sense. Others suppoise
that by these organs it scents out the destined nidus fqr
its eggs ; but Lehmann has satisfactorily proved that
they are not olfactory organs. We can therefore only
suppose, either that by means of its antennae it hears a
slight noi'se produced by the latent grub, perhaps by

" Ibid. 4g. " IM. 26,

- VOL. IV. R

242 8£NlSBS OF INSECTS.

the action of its mandibles ; or else that by its motions it
generates a motion in the atmosphere of its habitation,
which striking upon the antennae of the Fcenus^ are by
them communicated to its sensory. A similar dispropor-
tion is observable between the antennae and ovipositor of
Pimpla Manifestator^ before signalized ^. Bees, when col-
lecting honey and pollen, first insert the organs in ques^
tion into the flowers which they visit ; but, as I have more
than once observed, they merely insert the tip of them. If
anthers are bursting, or the nectar is exuding^ these pro-
cesses probably are attended by a slight noise, or motion
of the air within the blossom, which, as in the last case»
afiects, without immediate contact, the iexploring organs.
If the structure of antennae be taken into considera-
tion, it will furnish us with additional reasons in favour of
the above hypothesis, with regard lotKdr primary func-
tion. We shall find that these organs, in most of diose
insects which take their food by suction, are usually less
gifted with powers of motion, than they are in the man-
dibulate tribes ; so that in the majority of the Homo-
pterous Hemiptera and Diptera^ as is generally acknow-
ledged, they cannot be used for touch. Under this view,
they may be divided into active antennae and passive an-
tennae: of the former, the most 2LQ,\ixe and versatile are
those of the Hymenoptera. By means of them, as was
before observed**, their gregarious tribes hold converse
and make inquiry — ^frequently without corUact^^ia the
pursuit and discharge, if I may so speak, of the various
duties devolved upon them by Providence., Amongst
active antennae, some are much more complex in their

• See above, p. 211. ^ Vol. II. p. 62, 201—. .

SENSE3 OF INSECTS. 248

structure than others — ^a circumstance which is often cha*-
racteristic of the male insect' : but if we examine such
antenn^e^ we shall find that their m^o&t sensitive parts can-
not come m contact with the earth or other bodies- for
exploring their way ; but having thus a greater giurface
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, they have more
points to receive vibrrttions, or any pulses or other no-
tices communicated to it. It is thus, probably, that ii^
their flights, when they approach within a certain* di-
stance, they discover the station of the other sex. Even
the plumose antennse of male gnats, may ih some re^
spects thus be acted upon. In tlie Lamdlicort> beetles,
the knob of these organs iii both sexes consists of laminae,
the external ones on their outside, of a corneous sub-r
stance; while their internal surfkce, and llie inner lamines.
— which are included between them, as an oyster betweai
the valves of its shell — are covered with nervous pa*
pillae. If you examine the proceedings of one of these
little animals, you will find before it moves from a state
of repose that its antennae emerge, and the laminae di-
verge from each oth^r; but that it does not apply them
to surfaces to explore its way, but merely keeps them
open to receive notices from the atmosphere. Even 5/w-
ple antennae are often employed in this way, as well as
for touch. I once noticed a species of Phryganea L.,
(one of those with these organs very long,) that was perch-
ed upon *a blade of grass ; its antennae vibrated, and it
kept moving them from side to side in the air, as if thus
by aeroscepsy it was inquiring what was passing around
it. Dr. WoUaston has an observation bearing so pre-

» Vot. III. p. 320—.
R 2

24-4 SENSES OF INSECTS.

cisely upon this question, and in general so extremely simi-
lar to what is here advanced, that I must copy it for your
consideration. " Since there is nothing in the constitution
of the atmosphere," says he, " to prevent vibrations much
more frequent than any of which we are conscious, we may
imagine that animals like the Grylli, whose powers ap-
pear to commence nearly where ours terminate, may have
the faculty of hearing still shai'per sounds, which at pre-
sent we do not know to exist ; and that there may be
other insects, hearing nothing in common with us, but
endued with a power of exciting, and a sense that per-
ceives, vibrations indeed of the same nature as those
which constitute our ordinary sounds, but so remote, tliat
the animals who perceive them may be said to possess
another sefise, agreeing with our &wn solely in the medium
by vohich it is excited, and possibly wholly unaffected by
these slower vibrations of which we are sensible*." That
insects, however, hear nothing in common with us, is
contrary to fact; at least with respect to numbers of them.
They hear our sounds, and we theirs ; but their hearing
or analogous sense is much nicer than ours, collecting
the slightest vibratiuncle imparted by other insects, &c.
to the air. In inquiring how this is done, it may be asked
— How know we that every joint of some antennae is not
an acoustic organ, in a certain sense distinct from the
rest ? We see that the eyes of insects are usually com-
pound, and consist of numerous distinct lenses ; — why
may not their external ears or their analogues be also
multiplied, so as to enable them with more certainty to
pollect those fine vibrations that we know reach their

" PhUo$. Tram, 1820. 314.

S£NS£S OF INSECTS. 24>5

sensory, though they produce no effect upon our grosser
organs ? I propose this merely as conjecture, that you
may think it over, and reject or adopt it, in proportion as
it appears to you reasonable or the contrary ; and in the
hope that some anatomist of insects, who, to the sagacity
and depth of a Cuvier and a Savigny adds the hand and
eye of a Lytwinet, may give to the world the results
of a more minute dissection and fuller investigation of
the antennae of these animals, than has yet been under-
taken.

But besides receiving ilotices ^om the atmosphere, of
sounds, and of the approach or proximity of other in-
sects, &c., the antennae are probably the organs by which
insects can discover alterations in its state, and foretel
by certain prognostics when a change of weather is ap-
proaching. Bees possess this faculty to an admirable de-
gree. When engaged in their daily labours, if a shower
is approaching, though we can discern no signs of it,
they foresee it, and return suddenly to their hives. If
they wander far from home, and do not return till late
in the evening, it is a prognostic to be depended upon,
that the following day will be fine : but if they remain
near their habitations, and are seen frequently going and
returning, although no other indication of wet should be
discoverable, clouds will soon arise and rain come on.
Ants also are observed to be excellently gifled in this re-
lict : though they daily bring out their larvae to sun
them, they are never overtaken by sudden showers*.
Previously to rain, as you well know, numberless insects
seek the house ; then the Conops calcitrans^ leaving more

* Lehniann De Usu ArUejin, ii. 66 — ,

24*6 SENSES OF INSECTS.

ignoble prey, attacks us in our apartments, and inter-
rupts our studies and meditations^. The insects of prey
also foresee the approach of this weather, aiid theaccess
of flies, &c. to places of shelter. Then the spiders issue
from their lurking-plac^, and the Harpalidiseia the even-
ing run about our houses. Passive antennae, which are
usually furnished with a terminal or lateral bristle, and
plumose and pectinated ones, seem calculated for the ac-
tion of the electric and other fluids dispersed in the atmo-
sphere, which in certain states and proportions may cer-
tainly indicate the approach of a tempest, or of showers,
or a rainy season, and may so affect these organs as to ena^
ble the insect to make a sure prognostic of any approach-
ing change : and^e know of no other organ that is so
likely to have this power. I s&y electric fluid, because when
tlie atmosphere is in a highly electrified state, and a tem-
pest is approaching, is the time when inlets are usually
most abundant in the air, especially towards the evening;
and many species may then b^ taken, which are not at
othefr tiitieis to be met with.: but before the storm comes
on, all disappear^ and you will scarcely see a single indi-
vidual upon the wing. This seems to indicate that in-
sig(^t$ are particularly -excited by electricity ^ — But upon
this heiad I wish to make no positive assertion, I only
•suggest the probfiibility of the opinion ^

From all th^ has been said, I think you will be dis-
posed to adhiit that the primary and most universal ftmc-
•tionbflihe' antennae, is to be the organs of a sense, if not
the isame, at least anatl^gous to hearing, and answering

• VbL.L p. 48, 110.

^ Compare what is said above (p. 135) with respect to b^s.

' See^ for farther arguments; Lehmann M siipr. c. ix.

SENSKS OF INSECTS. 247

the same endj. something perhaps between it and touch*
In soniey hpw^veri as has been found in the Crustacea^
an prgan of hiring, in the ordinary sense, may exist at
the base of the.^ntennce, which may act the part in some
measure of the external ear, and collect and transmit
the. sound to suich organ *•

. That numerous antenjiae, as a secondary function, ex-
plore by ^icky i^; admitted oq all hands, and therefore I
need not enlar^ further upon this point; but shall pro-
C€^. to inquire whether insects do not possess some other
peculiar, organs that are particularly appropriated to this
sim^^ Firal^ hoTeeyer^ I must, make some general ob-
servations upon it Of all our senses, touch is the only
one that is not confined to particular organs, but dispersed
over the whole body : insects, however, from the indu-
rated crust with which they are c^n covered, feel sen-
sibly, it is probable, only in those parts where the nerves
are exposed, by being covered with a thinner epidermis,
to external action. Not that they cannot feel at all in
their, covered parts ; for as we fed sufficiently for walk-
ing, though our feet are covered by the thick sole of a
boot ox. shoe, so insects feel sufficiently through the crust
of their 1^ for all. purposes of motion. Besides, the
points that are coyexed by a thinner cuticle are often nu-
merous.; so tbat touch, at least in a passive sense^ may be
pretty generally. dispersed over their bodies; vbut active
or exploring touch is confi^ied to a few organs, as the
antenna, the palpi, and the arms. The two last I shall
now discuss.

* Marcel de Semi thinks he has discovered an organ of hearing
in most insects, but he does not state its situation. Mem, du Mm,
18)9.99.

24f8 SfiNSCS OF INSECTS*

> Various opinions have been started concerning the use
of the palpi. Bonsdorf thought that thiey were organs of
smell; Knoch, that this sense was confined tothei7ia^i/2^r^
ones, and that the labial ones were appropriated to taste* :
but the most early idea, and that from which they derive
their present name of palpi (Jeelers), is, that they are or-
gans of active touch ; and this seems to me the most cor-
rect and likely opinion. Cuvier, himself a host, has em-
braced this side of the question^, and Lehmann also ad-
mits it^. The following observations tend to confirm
this opinion. The palpi of numerous insects when they
walk, are frequently, or rather without intermission, ap-
plied to the surface on which they are moving — this you
may easily see by placing one upon your hand ; which
seems to indicate that they are Jeelers. In the AraneicUs
they are used as legs; and by the males at least, as ejpci"
ting if they be not really genital organs^. In the 5cor-
pionida they answer the purpose o£ hands: besides being
usually much shorter^ than antennee, they are better cal-
culated to assist an insect in threading the dark and tor-
tuous labyrinths through which it has often to grope
its way, and where antennae cannot be employed. I
have noticed that Hydrophili — in which genus the palpi
are longer than the antennae — ^when they swim, have their
antennae folded; while the palpi are stretched out in front,
as exploring before them. As the palpi are attached to
the under-jaws and under-lip, we may suppose they are

> Lehmann De Sens, Extern. Anim, Extang, De Olfactu.

•» Cuv. AnaL Comp, li. 675. c ^^- ^p^

^ Marcel de Serres says they are connected with testet seated in

the trunk, {Menu du Mus. 1819. 95); but Treviranus denies this

[Arachnid. 36—. /. iv./ 33).

SENSES OF INSECTS* 249

particularly useful to insects in taking their food ; and
upon this occasion I have often observed that they are
remarkably active. I have seen Byturus tomentosusj a
beetle which feeds upon pollen, employ them in opening
anthers ; and the maxillary pair appear to me to assist
the maxillae in holding the food, while the mandibles ace
at work upon it.

The arms or fore-legs of some insects are also organs
of active touch, being used, as we have seen, for cleaning
the head, digging, repairing their dwellings, and the
like*. By the Ephemenp, which have very short an-
tenna?, the fore-legs, when they fly, are extended before
the head, parallel with each other and quite united — pro-
bably to assist in cutting the air. The Trichoptera use
their ^tennse for the same purpose.

Another sense of which the organ seems uncertain is
that of smelling^ and various and conflicting opinions
have been circulated concerning it Christian thought
iBoBi insects smell distant objects with their antenncBy and
near ones with their palpi^. Comparetti has a most sin-
gular opinion. He supposes in difierent tribes of insects
that difierent parts are organs of smell : in the LameJU-
corns he conjectures the seat of this sense to reside in the
knob of the antenms; in the Lepidcptera in the antlia;
and in some Diptera and Orthoptera in certain frontal
ceUs^. At first sight, one of the most reasonable opi-
nions seems to be that of Baster, adopted by Lehmann,
and which has received the sanction of Cuvier**,— that

* Vol. II. p. 365—. III. p. 546—. •* Lehmann De Sens.

Extern, S^c, De Olfactu. ^ Lehmann vin supr, &c, 27,

<* Ibid, and De Urn Anieim, it 24 — . -Cuv. Anat, Contp. ii. 675.

2iO SENSES OF IN3£€TS«

die spiracUs are organs of smell as welt as of respiration.
Lebmann bas adduced several arguments in support of
this opinion. Because we botb respij^e and smell with
our nostrils, be concludes that neither the antennae nor
any other part of the head of insects can serve for smell,
since they are not the seat also of respiration; and that
there can be no siiiell where the air is not inspired*.
Again^ because nerves from the ganglions of the spinal
chord terminate in bronchise near the spiracles, they
must be for receiving scents from those openings. Though
it was necessary, in the higher animals, that the organ of
scent should be near the moutib, because they are larger
thaq their food ; yet jthe reverse of this being the case
with insects, which, often even reside in what they eat, it
is to them of no importance where their sense of smelling
resides^. By exposing antennae, by means of an orifice
in a glass vessel, to Jtfae action x)f stimulant odours, they
appeared quite insensible to it : but he does not name
the result of a^y ex.periment in which he exposed the
mouth to this, action ; nor at all distinctly how the insect
was affected when the spiracles were exposed to it*^.

But tliongh some of these arguments appear weighty,
there are others,.! think, that will more than. counterba-
lance them^. making it probable that the. seat of this sense
ijs.in the head, either in its ordiniary station at the.extre-
tnity of what l.call the^o^^, between it and the upper-lip,
or under thoseparis, .That the np^e co;rresponds with
the :Si>-tiamed part in. Mammalia, both from its situation
and often frotii its fbrm, must be evident. to every one
who looks at an insect*^ ; and when we further consider

* Lehmann De U»u Anienn. ii. 28. *» . Jfiirf. 31 .

'^Ilnd.Zb^. «» Vol. III. p. 475— .

SENSES OF INSECTS. 251

the connexion that obtains between the senses of smell and
taste^ how necessary it is that the seat of the one should
be near that of the other, and that it really is so in all
ianimals in which we certainly know its organ* ; we shall
feel convinced that the argument from analogy is wholly
in favour of the nose, and may thence consider it as pro-
bable that the sense in question does reside there. Leh-
mann seems to be of (opinion, because an ipsect is usually
smaller than what it feeds upon, that it makes no differ-
ence whether it smells with its head or with its tail: but
one would think that 2^fiying msect would be more rea^
dily directed to its object by smelling vnth the anterior
part of tlie body than with the posteriors and that 2l feed-
ing one would also find it mcnre convenient in selecting its
food. As to the argument,— 4hat smell must be the neceZ'^
sarif concomitant rf the respiratory op^ingS) and that
there can be no smell where the air is not inspired, —
this seems asserting more thiatt our knowledge of these
animals mil warrant : for the organs of the other senses,
though the senses themselves seem analogous, are so
different in their structure^ and often in the mode in
which they receive the impressions frcwn external objects,
that analogy would lead us to expect a difference of this
kind also in the sense of sniell. Besides, smell does not
invariably accompany respiratory organs even in the
higher animals,-^for we breathe with our mouthy but do
not smell with fhem. Cuvier says that ih% internal mem-
brane of the ti'acheae being soft and moist^ appears cal-
cttlated to receive sjcents**. Bilt here his memory failed
him; fer it is the external laienAymne alone that answers

» N. met d^Hki. Nat xxiii. 21^. * Ubi mpr.

^52 SENSES OF INSECTS.

this description ; the internal consisting of a spiral elastic
thread, and seeming not at all fitted to receive impressions^
but merely to convey the air*. That nerves penetrate
to the bronchiae, does not necessarily imply that they are
connected with the sense in question, since this may be
to act upon the muscles which are every where distri-
buted.

I shall now state some facts that seem to prove that
scents are received by some organ in the vicinity of the
mouthj and probably connected with the nose. M. P. Hu-
ber, desirous of ascertaining the seat of smell in bees^
tried the following experiments with that view. These
animals, of all ill scents, abominate most that of the oil
of turpentine. He , presented successively to all the
points of a bee's body, a hair-pencil saturated with it : but
whether he presented it to the abdomen, the trunk, or
the head, the animal equally disregarded it. Next,
using a very fine hair-pencil, while the bee had extended
its proboscis, he presented the pencil to it, to the eyes
and antennae, without producing any effect; but when he
pointed it near the cavity of the mouthy above the insertion
f^ the proboscis^ the creature started back in an instant,
quitted its food, clapped its wings, and walked about in
great agitation, and would have taken flight if the pencil
had not been removed. On this, it began to eat again ;
but on the experiment being repeated, showed similar
signs of discomposure : oil of marjoram produced the
same effect, but more promptly and certainly. Bees not
engaged m feeding appeared more sensible of the impres-
sion of this odour, and at a greater distance ; but those

' See above, p. 62. Sprengel Cominentar, 14—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 253

engaged in absorbing honey might be touched in every
other part without being disturbed. He seized several
of them, forced them to unfold their proboscis, and then
stopped their mouth with paste. When this was become
sufficiently dry to prevent their getting rid of it, he re-
stored to them their liberty : they appeared not incom-
moded by being thus gagged, but moved and respired
as readily as their companions. He then tempted them
with honey, and presented to them near the mouth, oil
of turpentine, and other odours that they usually have
an aversion to ; but all produced no sensible efiect upon
them, and they even walked upon the pencUs saturated
with them*.

These experiments incontestibly prove that the organ of
scent in bees — and there is no reason to think that other
insects do not follow the same law — is in or near the
moutkj and above the proboscis. It remains, therefore,
that we endeavour to discover its precise situation : and
as insects cannot tell us, nor can we perceive by their
actions, in what precise part the sense in question resides,
the only modes to which we can have recourse to form
any probable conjecture, are analogy and dissection. At
first, the opinion noticed above, that the palpi are its or-
gans, seems not altogether unreasonable ; but as the ar*
gument from analogy, except as to their situation near
the mouth, is not in favour of them, and there seems no
call, were smell their function, for the numerous variations
observable in their structure, I think we must consider
them, as I have endeavoured to prove, rather as instru-^
m^nts of touch. Let us now inquire, whether there be

* Huber AbeUles ii. 375--.

954 Si;NS£S OF INSEIptS.

n0t discoverable upoa dtssectkui, id the interior of the
heftd of am^ insects, some organ that may be deemed,
&om U* situation, under ivhat we have called the nose
md nostrils, the seat of the sense we are treating oC
The common burying-beetle {Necrophmns Ve^ilto) is
an insect remarkable for its acuteness of smell, which
enables it to scent out and bury, as was formerly related
to you*, the carcases of small animals. Take one oi
these insects, md kill it as formerly directed,^-exQmine
first its nose : in the middle of the anterior part you will
see a subtrapezoidal space, as it were cut out and filled
with a paler piece of s softer and more membranous tex^
ture. Next divide the head horizontally ; and finder the
nose, and partly under this space, which I call the rki-
narium or nostril-piece'', you will find a pair of circular
pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane transversely
striated with beautifully fine strife. These are whet I
take to be the organs of smell, and they still remain dis-
tinctJiy visible in a specimen I have had by me more
than fifteen years. A similar organ may be discovered
in the common water-beetle [Dt/tisctis marginalis), but
with this peculiarity, that it is furnished with a pair of
nipples. I have before described an analogous part co-
vered with p^iUse, in .MshTta viatica, and you will find
it in other insects'. Perhaps at first this part may seem
merely a continuation of the palate ; but if you consider
the peculiarifies in its structure just noticed, it is evt-
dently a sensiferous organ ; and as the sense of smell ap-
pears to reside in the head, this is its most probable seat.
But by what channel scents act upon it, — whether they
" Vol. I. p. 350—. " Vou III. p. 481—.

SCITSES OF INSECTS. 255

are transtmitted dirough the pores of die part represent-
ing the nostrils, or received by thie moiidi, — I will not
ventore to assert positively : but from the circumstance
of their being membranous in some insects remarkable
for acute scent, as in Necraphotn4Sj StaphylinuSi &c., there
seems some ground for the former opinion. As the sense
of smell in these little beings is extremely acute, as well
as their hearing, the perception of odours may reach their
sensory through these pores ; and even those in the hard
rhinarium of an Anoplognathus may receive and trans-
mit them ; and besides the upper-lip and nose are often
united by. membranes which may facilitate such trans-
mission.

That insects taste^ no one hesitates to believe, though
some have supposed the palpi to be the organ of that
sense ; but as they have a tongue^ as we have shown, we
may with Cuvier conclude, that one of its primary func-
tions is to taste dieir food *. I shall not therefore launch
out further upon this head.

I have now placed before you a picture, or rather
sketch, of the insect world. And whether we regard their
general history and economy, their singular metamor-
phoses, the infinite varieties and multiplicity of their
structure both external and internal, and their diversi-
fied organs both of sense and motion — I think you will
be disposed to own, that in no part of his works is the
hand of an Almighty and All- wise Creator more vi-
sibly displayed, than in these minutiae of creation ; that
they are equally worthy of the attention and study of the

» duv. AmiL Comp. ii. 68^—.

2S6 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Christian Philosopher with any of the higher d^art-
nients of the animal kingdom ; and that all praise is due
to Him, for placing before our eyes, for our entertain*
ment and instruction, such a beautiful moving picture of
little symbols and agents^ perpetually reflecting his glory
ftnd working his will.

1

LETTER XLVI.

OBISMOLOGY, OB EXPLANATION OF

TERMS.

It was by the language of terrns that he invented and
employed, as well as by his system and methods of ar-
rangement, that Linne smoothed the way to the study of
Natural History ; — ^having therefore led you through a
large portion of the flowery fields of the Science of Ento-
mology, I must now conduct you into that arid but not
barren or unprofitable region. To enable you to under-
stand descriptions of insects, or to describe them your-
self, you must have a knowledge of the technical lan-
guage by which their parts and characters are expressed.
Much of this you already know from the definitions of
external parts, furnished in a former letter* : I shall
now give you a more full and general explanation of
terms, adding many new ones for unnoticed characters,
that may be conveniently employed.

The science of terms, which I shall call Orismologi/^
may be divided into two branches — General Orismology,
and Partial Orismology ; the first containing general de-
finitions, and the last those relating to particular parts
and organs.

• Vol. III. p. 354—. * Ibid. p. 629.

VOL. IV. 8

258 ORISMOLOGY.

A. GENERAL ORISMOLOGY.
L SUBSTANCE.

1. Membranous {Membranacea}. A fine, thin, trans-

parent substance. A Membrane. Ex. Wtngs of
Hymenoptera and Diptera.

2. Pergameneous {Pergamenea). A thin, tough, and

less transparent substance, somewhat resembling
parchment. Ex. The Tegmina of the Orthoptera\
8. Coriaceous {Coriaced). A thicker, flexible sub-
stance resembling leather. Ex. Ehftra of Tde^
phorus and the Malacodermi Latr.

4. Corneous (Cornea). A hard inflexible substance

resembling horn. Ex. Elytra of Lucanm Cervus
and m^iy other Coleoptera.

5. CnusTACEOUS {Crustacea). A rigid calcareous sub-

stance. Ex. Tlie Shell of a Lobster or Crod.

6. Callous (Callosa). A substance without pores,

harder than the surrounding matter, apd usually
elevated above it. Ex. Elevated parts of the Collar
in Nomada F. {Mon. Ap. ^AvgL Apis * b.)** S}iots on
the elytra ofStenocorus btm^ctdaius and aflinities.

7« Cartilagi NEOU8 {CartUc^ineo). A gristly substance
between bone and ligament Ex. The Tongue of
many Hymenoptera.

8. Subereous (Suberea). A soft elastic substance
somewhat resembling ^&ik^. The galls of some

* The elytra of this Order in general differ so materially bodi
frcmi membrane aod corium, that it was re^site to inTsent a term
to distinguish them. ^ Mon, Ap. AngL i. /. v./. 8. b, c.

^ We use this term because auberota is employed in a quite differ-
ent sense.

ORI8MOI.PGY. 9g9.

species of Cynips when mature approach to ihist
substance.
9. Spongiose {Spqngiosa)f A soft elastic substance re-
sembling sponge. Ex, The PulviUi of TAanasi'..
mt4$, Buprestisj &g.

10. Ligneous (Lignosa), A hard unelastio substance

like wood, Ex. Galls of some species of Cynips.

11. Carnose (Carnosa), A soft) jleihy substance.

Ex. Caterpillars and Grubsi,

12. TuBULosE {Tubtdosa), When the interior is hol-

low or empty.

13. Solid {Solida), When the interior iajidl,

II. RESISTANCE.

1. Rigid ( Rigida), Hard, which does not bend or yield

to pressure. Ex. Curculio L.

2. Flexile {Flexilis), Which easily bends, or yields to

pressure without breaking. Ex. Elytra of Telephorus.

3. Soft {Mollis), Flexile and retaining the mark^ of

pressure. Ex. Elytra of Meloe,

III. DENSITY.

1. FoLiACEOUS {Foliacea). Very thin and depressed,

scarcely thicker than ^ leaf. Ex, Aradus eorticalis
and Coretts paracUkvj^s*

2. Depressed [Depressa), When the 'vertical section

is shorter than the transverse, Ex. Trogosita mau-^
ritanica»

3. Compressed {Compressq), When the transverse

section is shojrter ihm the vertical, Ex. Centrotus
comutus : Abdomen in Cynips, .

&2

360. ORISMOLOOY.

4. Plump (Pinguis). Naturally and proportionably

plump. Ex. The Brachyrini ovati Latx. {CurcU'
lio L.). Most of the Tettigonia.

5. Obese (Obesa), Unnaturally enlarged and distended,

as if from disease or too much food. Ex. Chryso^
mela Polygcmi ? , Galeruca Tanaceti ? , Brachy^
certis.

«

6. Ventbicose {Ventricosa). Bellying out as if filled

with air. Ex. Pneumora*

IV. PROPORTION

1. TmciL {Crassa). Disproportionably thick through-

out Ex. Copris F.

2. Incrassate {Incrassata). Disproportionably thick

in part. Ex. Base of the Abdomen of .Mshna aad
many Libellulina. Plate IX. Fig. 9.

3. Slender ( Tenuis ). Disproportionably slender

throughout. Ex. Lirus paraplecticm.
' 4. Attenuate {Atientiata), Disproportionably slen-
der in part. Ex. 7. ail of Scorpio, RapkidiaiSf
&c.

5. Broad {Lata), Disproportionably broad through-

out

6. DiLATATE {Dilatata). Disproportionably broad in

part. "Ex. Elytra of HyctisJasciattiSiSiic, Plate XIII.
Fig. 20.

7. Narrow ( Angusta ). Disproportionably narrow

throughout. Ex. Abdomen of Agrion F.

8. Angustate (Angustata). Disproportionably nar-

row in part Ex. Elytra of Sitaris kumeralis*
Plate XIII. Fig. 19.

ORISJffOLOOT. £61

9. Long {Longa). Disproportianably long throi^hout.
Ex. Scolopendra.

10. Elongate {Elongata). Disproportionably long in

part Ex. Abdomen of Libellulina.

11. Short (-Brm5}. Disproportionably short through-

out Ex. Copris.

12. Abbreviate {Abbreviata), .Disproportionably short

in part. Ex. Elytra of ^aphylinidce^ Atracto*
certLSy &c.

V. FIGURE*.

1. Circular {Circidaris), Having the diameter every

way equal. Plate XXIX. Fig. 16, 17.

2. Rotundate {Rotundata). Rounded at the angles

or sides. Plate XXIX. Fig. 19.
S. Oval {Ovalis). Having the longiHtdinal diaineter
twice the length of the trans^erse^ and the ends
circumscribed by equal segments of a circle.
Plate XX. Fig. 6.

4. Elliptic {ElUpttca), Oval, but having the Zongi-

tudinal diameter more than tmce the length of the
transverse. Plate XX. Fig. 19.

5. Oblong {Oblonga). Having the longitudinal dia^

meter more than twice the length of the transverse^
and the ends varying, or rounded. Plate XX.
Fig. 3, 9.

6. Ovate {Ovata). Oval, but having the ends circum-

scribed by unequal segments of circles. Plate XX.
Fig. 12, 13.

7. CoBDATE {Cordata). Heart-shaped. Ovate or sub-

' Wc restrict the term Figure, to the shape of a superficies.

263 ORISMOLOGY.

ovate and hollowed a[mt at tliebase, withcmt pos-
terior angles. Plate IX. Fio. 22.

8a Sagittate -{Sagittata), Arrow-shaped. Ti^umgu-
lar, hollowed out at the base with posterionuigles.
Plate XXVIL Fig. 41. w'".

9. Hastate {Hastata). Halberd-shaped. Triangu-
lar, hollowed out at ^ tmse and sides "with the
posterior ingles spreading. Ex. Hofn of the pf-o^
thorax of Dynastes hastatus. Pos0kr6U in many
Coleqptera. Plate XXIL Fig. 5. b f .

10. Triangular ; Quadrangular ; Quinquangu-

LAR ; Sexangular {Triangula; Quadrangulai
Quinquangula : Sexangula). Having threcj Jbu7'y
Jive, or siv angles.

11. Turbinate (Turbinata). Top-shaped, triangular

with curved sides. Plate XXV. Fig. 18.

12. Ensate {Emata), Gradually tapering till it ends

in a point. Ex. Ovipositor of Acrida viridissima K.

Plate XV. Fig. 19.
Id. Lanceolate {Lanceolata). Oblong and gradually

tapering towards each extremity. Ex. The Cerct

in Blatta. Plate XV. Fig. 23. Q''.
14*. SiGMoiDAL (Sigmoidea). S-shaped. Lanceolate

and concave on one side at the base, and on the

other at the apex. Ex. Ovipositor of Cimbex.

Plate XV. Fig. 21. UK

15. CuNEATE {Cuneata). Wedge-shaped. Having the

longitudinal diameter exceedii^g the transversej
and narrowing gradually downwards. Plate X.
Fig. 11.

16. AciiifACic ATE {Acinacicata). Falchion-shaped. Curv-

ed with the apex truncate, and growing gradually

ORISMOLOOY. 268

Wider towards the end. Ex. Abdomen of Ophion^

Fosnus, ^d other fchneumonidce^^
17. LuNULATE (iMtitilata). Crescent-shaped. Curved

with both ends acute, like the moon in her first

quarter. Ex. Last joint of the labial palpi of

Oayporus. Plate XIII. Fig. 4. a.
IS. Falcate (Faleata). Sickle-shaped. Curved with

the f^ex acute. Ex. Ovipositor of Acrida varia K.

Antenme of Atractocerus. Plate XI. Fig. 8.

19. Linear {Linearis)* Narrow and of the. same width

throughout Ex. Wings of Plerophorus monodac"
ijflus*

20. Arcuate {Arcuata), Linear and bent like a bow.

Ex. Rostrum o( Balaninus Nucum, Plate XIII.
Fig. 12.

21. CvurnATE (Ctdtrata), Coulter-shaped. Straighten

oiie side and curved on the other. Ex. Ovipositor
of some Tenthredos. Under-'wing of many Ich-
neumonidce.

22. Spatulate {Spattdata). Spatula-shaped. Broader

and rounded at the apex, linear and narrow at
the base. Ex. Abdomen of Ichneumon amictorius
Panz.

23. Clavate {C/ai?a/fl). Club-shaped. Linear at the

base, but towards the apex growing gradually
broader. Plate XL Fig. 4.

24. Quadrate {Quadrata), Square. Quadrilateral

with the sides equal and the angles right angles.

^ The term falcate has usually been applied to signify this ^ure,
as well as that to which we haye restricted it ; but as the truncate
and sharp extremity forms a striking c^fference, we thought it best
to invent ajiew term.

264 ORISMOLOGY.

25. Rhomboid {Rhomboidea). QuadrUateral with the

sides equal, but with two opposite angles acutey and
two obtuse. Plate XXVII. Fig. 62. f.

26. Trapezate ( Trapezata). Quadrilateral with the

four siAei unequal, and none of them perfectly pa-
rallel. Plate XIV. Fig. 4.

27. Trapezoid {Trapezoidea). Quadrilateral, with two

sides unequal and parallel*. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 34. R

28. Parallelogramical {Parallelogramica), Qua-

drilateral, with all the angles right angles, and all
the sides parallel, but two longer than the others.

VI. FORMb.

1. Svu^niCM. (Sphcerica). Theshapeofag/oi/. A body

whose diameter every way is equal. Plate XX.
Fig. 5.

2. Orbiculate (Orbtculata). A depressed globe,

whose horizontal section is circular, and vertical
oval. Plate XX. Fig. 10, 11.

3. Lenticular {Lentiadaris), Lens-shaped. Whose

horizontal section is circular, and vertical lanceo-
late. Ex. Abdomen of Cynips aptera.

4. Oy KLi'EO'RM{Ovaliformis). Whose longittidinal sec-

tion is oval, and transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 6.

5. Ellipsoid (Ellipsoidea). Whose longitudinal sec-

• We have departed from the more usual definition of trapezoid,
*• An irregular figure whose four sides are not parallel," because the
above is best suited to forms in insects.

•» We use this term to denote the shape of solid bodies.

ORISMOLOGY. 266

tion is elliptical, ond transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 19.

6. Oviform [Oviformis). Whose longitudinal section

is ovate, and transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 12, 13.

7. CucuMiFORM {Cucumiformis), Cucurober-shaped.

Whose longitudinal section is oblong, and trans--
verse circular. Plate XX. Fig. 18, excluding
the neck.

8. CoRDiFORM {Cordiformis), Oviform and hol-

lowed out at the base without posterior angles.
Plate IX. Fig. 22.

9. Conical (Conica). Whose vertical section is trian-

gular, and horizontal circular. Ex. Abdomen of
Ccelioxys conica Latr. {Apis * * b. K.). Plate XX.
Fig. 7.

10. TuRBiNiFORM ( Turbiniformis), Whose vertical

section is turbinate, and horizontal circular. Ex.
Antennae of Aleochara socialis Grav., and many
others of that genus.

11. VYYiKMinAia {Pyramidalis). Whose »^^eVa/ section

is triangular, and horizontal quadrangular.

12. Cuneiform (Cttw^f^^rmes). Whose i^^//cai section

is cuneate, and horizontal parallelogramicaL

13. Triquetrous [Triquetra). Whose horizontal sec-

tions are equilateral triangles. Plate XI. Fig. 6.

14*. Ensiform (Ensiformis)* Whose horizontal sections
are acute-angled triangles gradually diminishing
in diameter from the base to the apex, and propa-
gated in a straight line. Plate XI. Fig. 7.

15. Acinaciform {Acinaciformis). Whose horizontal
sections are oo/^^-angled triangles gradually in-

266 0RISM0L06Y.

creasing in diameter from the base to the apex, and
propagated in a curved line.

16* CvLTRiToiLU (CtJtr^brmis). Whose karixorUeU sec-
tions axe equal acut&^oigled triangles, or a three-
sided body with two equal sides large and the
third small.

17. Deltoid (DeUoidea). Short with- the horizontal
section trjangular and decreasing in diameter to-
wards the base. Ex. Apex of the posterior tibia
in Copri'S lunaris.

la. TjtiQONAJL; . Tetraoon^ai. ; Pentagokal; Hexa-
gonal; Polygonal (TV^g^onu; Tetragtmai Pen-
tagona: Hesmgonaj Polygoria). Whose horizoji-
^ aecticm is ^iwigular; quadrangular; quin-
quangular^ sexangular; multiangular.

19. Triedral; Tetraedral; Pentaedrajl; Hexa-

■edral; Polyedral {Triedra; Tetraedna;. Pen^
taednu; Hexaeira^ Polyedrji). Tliathath three
sides ; fom* sides.; jfioe aides ; six sides ; mdiry sides.

20. Prismoidal {Prismoidalis), Ibving more than

^oitr aides and whose horizontal i^ection is a poly-
gon^. Plate VL Fig. 13. a, 6, d v

^1» TRAFEzxa^oBif {Trap&sifinwis). Whose horizontal
section is a Trapezium.

2^ T^UAVSJ^otDWonm {Trapezoidiformis)* Whose hori^
zontal section is tr f^eeoid.

2S. Rhokbiform {Rhombifarmis), Whose horizontal
.section is dbosiboidal. Plate VIIL Fig. II.

* The word employed in Botany to denote a Polygon UprismaU- I

cal; but since, properly defined, this term is synonymous i/nth trique^
trotts, we thou^t it best to use an adjective derived from prUmoid,
which implies a. body that approaches to prisinatical.

oBisMOLOcrv. 367

$4<% Tiro-£DG£D (Anceps)* Whose Aarissontai <stciionh

lancedfile.
25» OrLisiDRiCAL (O^/mcfma). Whose iorisunUal seo-

tions sa^ iAl equal circles. Flate JLX.h Fig. 4.
26. VvsiTCfRM (Fusifi^rmis). Spindle-shsped. Whose

vertrcal section is ktnceoiate or linesri-*lanceolate,

and horizontal cireulaf. Plate XXUL Fig. 12.
27* OoLUMTNAR {Teres\ Whose vertical sectron is CB*

neate, extdi horizontal drcular. Pulte XVL Fig.

28. Claviform (Claviformis). Whose vertisid 4Siection

is clavat^ and Tiorizonifd ciFChlar* Plate Xi.
XII. Fig. *.

29. Cubical (Cubica). ^Sii^sided, with sides quadrate.

30. Parallelofifedous {Parallehpipeda)* jSti^sided,

with four parallelogramical and two quadrate
sides.

31. Pyriform {Pyriformis)» iPear-shaped. Whose

vertical 's€c^an is spatolate, and horizontal circu-
lar. Ex: Apio% ^rachyrinusy Sc.

32. iNFUNDiBtTLtFORM \Infimdihii,^brmiz\ Funnel-

shaped. Whose hoti'zontal Sections are circular,
at first equal and tlieb progressively larger and
larger. Plate XXIL Fig. 5f2. c.

33. Fornicate {JPom%cata\ Concave above and con-

vex 1)et(cSftth. Plate XIII. FrG. 18. a.

34j. Coarctate {Coarctata). When the diameter of
the middle is less than that of the ends. Ex. Pos-
terior thigh of Locusta. Plate XIV. Fig. 5.

35. <]!alceoL1ForM {Calceollfomis), Oblong, and some-
what ^coarctate in 'the middle. Ex. Abdomen of
Chelonus F.

i68 ORI8MOL06Y.

W. LAaENiFORM {Lageniformis)^ Bellying out anct
then ending in a narrow neck, something like a
bottle. Ex. Spermrreservoir attached to the oviduct
in Pieris. Plate XXX. Fig. \2. d.

37. Constrict (Cow^^ncte). Suddenly and dispro-
portionably smaller at one end. Plate XXII.
Fig. 15.'

88. LuNiFORM {Lunijbrmis). Whose longitudinal sec-

tion is lunate. Plate XIII. Fig. 4.

89. Nodose {Nodosa). Having one or more knobs or

swellings. Plate XII. Fig. 5.
40. Geniculate (Genictdata). Bent so as to form a
knee or angle. Plate XII. Fig. 7-

VII. SUPERFICIES.

i. PARTS.

1» Disk (Discus). The middle of a surface.
2. Limb {Limbus). The circumference.
8. Margin (Margo). The extreme sides.

4. Apex {Apex), The summit

5. Base {Basis). The bottom.

6. Supine Surface {Pagina superior). The upper

surface.

7. Prone Surface {Pagina inferior). The under sur-

face.

ii. ELEVATION and DEPRESSION.

1. Navicular (^avfVu/am). When two sides meet
and form an angle like the outer bottom of a boat
Ex. Notonecta glauca.

ORISMOLOGY. 269

2. Convex {Convexa). Jin elevation the arc of which

is the segment of a circle. Ex. Upper Surface of
the body of most Coleoptera.

3. Gibbous {Gibba). An elevation the arc of which

is not the segment of a circle*. Ex. Shoulders of
the elytra o( Prionm coriariusy and of ^any other
Coleoptera,

4. Plane (PZflTifl). Flat When the disk is not higher

than the limb, nor the limb than the disk.
5* Concave {Concava). A depression the arc of which

is the segment of a circle.
6. Excavate {Excavata). A depression the arc of

which is not the segment of a circle. Ex. Protho^

rax of Sinodendrum cylindricum.

ill. SCULPTURE.

1. Equate^ {^qttata). Without larger partial eleva-

tions or depressions.

2. Smooth {Lcevis). Without smaller partial elevations

or depressions.

3. Levigate [Laevigata). Without any partial eleva-

tions or depressions.

4. Pore {Ponis), A minute impression that perforates

the substance.

* This term in Anatomy denotes any unnatural protuberance or
convexity of the body, as a person hunched- or hump-backed. In
AMtrononiy it is used in reference to the enlightened parts of the
moon, whilst she is moving from the first quarter to the full, and
from the full to the last quarter ; for all that time the dark part ap-
pears horned or falcated, and the light one hunched out, convex or
gibbous.

^ We employ the term tsquatus instead oi cequalis commonly used
in this sense, biecause (equalu is also applied to magnitude; to which
V^e would restrict it.

370 OBISMOLOOY.

5. PonosE {Parosa)» Bes^t^wiih many pores* ^.

Elytra of niQst Apions^

6. A Point {Punctum)* A mioute impression upon

the surface^ but not perfin'ating it.

7. Punctate {Punctata). Beset with many points.

EiL. Impression on Ike Head and Protharax of Me-
lolontha Horticola, &c.

8. Variole (Variola), A shallow impression like a

mark of the small-pox*

9. VabioJjOus {Variolosa). Beset with many varioles.

Ex. Scarabteus variolosm M*L.

10. Umbilicate {Umbilicata): When a vanolei tuber-

x^le, granule, &c. has a depression in its centre.
Ex. Thorax oS Pachyga$ter scabrosus.

1 1. FovEOLET {Fofoeola)* A roundish and rather deep

depression, larger than a variole.

12. Foveolate (Foveolata), Having one or more fo-

veolets. Ex. Prothorax of Geotrupes stercoral
rius Latr.

13. FossuLET {Fossula). A somewhat long and narrow

depression.
I*. Fossulate {Fossulata), Having one or more fos-
sulets. Ex. Oxytelus f-ugosus F., &c.

1 5. Unequal (Inaqualis). Having very slight and in-

determinate excavations. Ex. Prothorax of Silpha
thoradca^ CaUichroma moschtj^m, &c.

16. Lacunose (Lacunosa). Having a few scattered, ir-

regular, Ibroadish but shallow excavations. Ex.
Elytra of Donacia vittata^ Sagittaruje, &c.

1 7. RiMOSE {Mimosa), Chinky, resembling the bark of

a tree. Having numerous minute, narrow and
nearly parallel excavations, which run into each

ORISMOLOGY^ 2?1

Other* Ex. Wytra of Dytiscus ccttaris 9 > and
jRoeseliu

18. Undose (XJndosa). Having undulating nearly par

rallel broader depressions which run into each
other^ and resemble the sand of the sea-shore
when left by the tide* Ex. Ofphus^ ? un^b^sus K.
M-S.

19. Vermiculate (VermicuUzta). Having tortuous ex-

cavations as if eaten by wonns. Ex, Prothorax
oi Dytiscu$ parapleurus E. B., Z). trcmsveralis Pk.

20. Reticvlosb (Reticttlosa). Having a number of mi-

nute impressed lines which intersect each other in
various directions like the meshes of a net* Ex.
Prothorax of Dytiscus Bceseliu

21. AcuDUCTED {Acuducta). Scratdied across very

finely as if with the point of a needle or pin. Ex.
Dytiscus acuductus E. B.

22. Striate {Striata). Having radier slightly impressed

longitudinal parallel lines. Ex. Carabus (eneuSf &c«

23. Sulcate {Sulcata)* Having deeper impressed lon-

gitudinal parallel lines. Ex. Dytisem margin
nalis $ .

24. Clathrose {Clathrosa). When stnas or furrows

cross each other at right angles. Ex. Md^omen of
Micropeplus porcatm.

25« RivosE {Rivosa)* When furrows do not run in a
parallel direction and are rather sinuate, Ex.
Prothorax of Elophorus stagnalisj &c.

26. Interstice {Intetstitium), The space between ele-
vations and depressions running in lines.

* I am not certain that the insect here mentioned is « Cj^phut
Germ. ; but it comes oear that genus, and is comsfion in Brazil.

S7i orismology:

27- Interval {Intervallum), The space between irre-
gular and scattered elevations and depressions.

28. CoMPLANATE {Complafiata). A convex or irregular

surface having a plane slight depression, Ex.
Sides of the Proihorax^ of Prionus cervicomts.

29. Canaliculate (Canaliculata). Having a longitu-

dinal impressed line or channel. Ex. Prothorax
of Geotrupes Latr. Broscus cephalotes^ &c.

30. Carinate {Carinata). Having a longitudinal ele-

vated line. Ex. Rostrum of Curctdio nebtdosus
E. B. BicarinatCf Tricarinate^ &c., having two or
three such lines. Ex. Elytra ofSilpha recta.
SI. Cristate {Cristata). Having one or two very ele-
vated lines usually cretiate. Ex. Prothorax: of
Locusta laurifolia F.

32. PoRCATE {Porcata), Having several parallel ele-

vated longitudinal ridges. Ex. Onthophilus stri-
atiis Leach {Hister L.).

33. Cost ATE (Cos/ato). Having several broad elevated

lines. Ex. Brachinus bimaadatuSy &c.

34?. Clathrate (Clathrata). Having several elevated
lines which cross each other at right angles. Ex.
Abdomen of Micropephis porcatus,

i5. Reticulate {Reticulata). Having many small
elevated lines which intersect each other in various
directions like the meshes of a net. Ex. Lycus
reticulatus F. Wings of the Libellulidce.

36. Rugose {Rugosa). Wrinkled. Intricate with ap-

proximating elevations and depressions whose di-
rection is indeterminate. Ex. Elytra of Prionus
coriarius,

37. CiCATRicoSE (Cicatricosa). Having elevated spots

ORISMOLOGY. • 273

of a different colour from the rest of the surface,
resembling scars. Ex. Elytra of Silpha lachrymosa.
Linn* Trans.

38. Embossed {Ccelata), Having several plane tracts

of a different shape higher than the rest of the sur-
face. Ex. Prbthoraa: o( Prionus damicornis^ maxil'
losttSj &c.

39. GiBBOSE {Gibbosa), Having one or more large

elevations. Ex. Sides of the Prothorax of Bra-
chycerus barbarus.

40. Tubercle ( Tuberadum). A pimple-like knob.

41. TuBERcuLATE (Ttiberculata). Having several tu-

bercles. Ex. Attelabus gemmaUis P. Ba^e of Pro^
thorax of Callichroma moschatum.

42. Verruca. A small flattish wart-like prominence.

43. Verrucose ( Verrucosa). Having several vemxce.

Ex. Pimelia muricata.

44. Muricate {Muricata). Armed with sharp thick,

but not close, elevated points like a Murex. Ex.
Bronchus Tribulus^ quadridens Germ., &c.

45. EcHiNATE (Echinata). Armed with sharp spines

like a hedgehog or Echinus. Ex. Hispa atra.

46. Rugged [Salebrosa). When a surface is rough

with mucros, spines and tubercles intermixed^
Ex. Numerous species of Bronchus Germ. *
47- Granule (Granulum). A very minute elevation.

48. Granulate (Granulata). Beset with many gra-

nules like sAag7*^^». ^x.Pachygast€rsulcatus Germ.
Prothorax of Copris Molossus.

49. Scabrous (Scabra). Rough to the touch from gra-

' * Insect, Spec, Nov. 332—. To this genus Curcujio T)tbylus and
quadridens F. appear to belong. -

VOL. IV. T

• 274 ORISMOLOGY.

nules scarcely visible. Ex. Elytra o( Packygasier
LigtisticL

50. Papillule {Papillida), A tubercle or variole with

an elevation in its centre.

51. Papillulate [PapiUidata), Beset with many pa-

pillules. Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules ? .

52. Catenulate {Catenulata). Having a series of ele-

vated oblong tubercles resembling a chain. Ex.
Carabus catenulatus E.B.

53. Sphebulate {Spfuerulata). Having one or more

rows of minute tubercles. Ex. Trox ItUosus,
Elmis tuberctdatus.

54. CoNSUTE {Consuta). Having very minute elevations

in a series at some distance from each other, of a
different colour from the rest of the surface, and
somewhat resembling stitching. Ex. Elytra of
Oryctes? Sylvanus,

55. Intricate (/w/rica^a). When depressions or ele-

vations so run into each other as to be di£Scult to
trace. Ex. Elytra of Carabus intricatus E. B.

56. Corrugate {Carrugata). When a sur&ce rises and

falls in parallel angles more or less acute. Ex.
Erant of Nothiophilus aquaticus.

57. Obliterate {Obliterata). Applied to impressions

and elevations when almost efiaced.

iv. CLOTHING.

a. GENERAL.

1. Scutate {Scutata). Covered with large flat scales.

Ex. Lepisma polypoda.

2. Squamose (Squamosa). Covered with minute scales.

Ex. Lepidoptera.

ORISMOLOGY» 275

3* PcLYERULENT (PtiherutetUa). Covered with very
minute powder-like scales. Ex. Cryjptorhynchm
Sisymhriu

4. PoLLiNOSE {Pottirtosa). Covered with a loose mealy

and often yellow powder resembling the pollen of
flowers. Ex. Lixus paraplecticus.

5. Farinose {Farinosa). Covered with a fixed mealy

powder resembling^^fotir. Ex. Spots on the Elytra
of Cetonia aurata^ variegata^ &c.

6. LuTOSE {L/utosa), Covered with a powdery sub-

stance resembling mtid or dirt, which e&sily rubs
off. Ex. Troxlutosus*

7. RoRULENT {Rorulenta), Covered like a plum with

a bloom which may be rubbed off. Ex. Peltis
limbata Illig.

8» Stupeous {Stupea). Covered with long loose scales
resembling ttm. Ex. The Palpi of JLepidoptera.
Antentue of some Diptera, Plate XII. Fig. 23.

9. Pilose {Pilosa). Covered with long distinct flexi-
ble hairs. Ex. Thorax of Vespa Crabro L.

10. ViLLOSE {Villosa). Covered with soft flexible hairs

thickly set Ex. Proihorax of Melolontha sohti-'
tialis F.

11. Lanate (ia»ato). Covered with fine, very long,

flexible and rather curling hairs like wool. Ex.
Melolontha lanigera F. ^

12. Lanuginose {Lanuginosa). Covered with longish

very soft fine down. Ex. Prothorax of Trichhis

fasciatus F. Thorax and base of the Abdomen of

Apis circumctTicta K.

IS. Hirsute {Hirstda). Covered with long stiffish

hairs very thickly set Ex. Apes Bombinatrices JU,

T 2

376: ORISMOLOGY.

H. PcuMULOSE (Plumtdosa). When the hairs fairaixefa
out laterally like feathers. Ex. Hair on the base
of the Maxilla o{ Eucera {Apis ** d. 1. K.).

15. Hairy {Hirta). Covered with short stiffish sub-

distinct hairs. Ex. Genus Lagria F«

16. ToMENTOSE (Tomenbosa). Covered with short in-

terwoven inconspicuous hairs. Ex. Lataia JEdilis.

17. Pubescent (Pubescens). Covered with very fine

decmnbent short hairs. Ex. Harpalus in^or-
fits, &c.

18. Stupulose {Stuptdosa). Covered with coarse de-

cumbent hairs. Ex. Elytra of Melolontha vul-
garis.
19* VELUTiNoys {Velvtina). Covered with very thick-
set upright short hairs or pile, resembling velvet.
Ex. Trombidium kolosericeum. ScuteUum of Sta-
phflinus hybridus E. B.

20. HoLOSERiCEOUS (Hb/osm^^a). Covered with thick-

set shining short decumbent hairs, resembling
satin* 4, Ex. Under side of the body ofEtophorus
stagnalis, Aranea aqtcaticaj &c.

21. Setose (Setosa). Bristly. I^prinkled with stiff scat-

tered hairs like bristles. Ex. Musca grossa L.

22. Setulose {Setidosa). Setose with the bristles truii^

cated. Ex. Curadio setosus E. B.

23. Hispid {Hispida). Rough from minute spines, or

very stiff rigid bristles. 'Ex. Hispa atra. Phaberm
horridus M^L., &c.

*- This kind of pubescence has usually been denominated sericeous
{iericea) ; but it certainly does not resemble siUcy and is very different
firom the proper sericeous splendour, exhibited by Cfyptocephalu»
serieeut £. B.

ORISMOLOGY. 277

^4i. Rough {Aspera). Rough from pubescence in ge-
neral.

25. Bald {Calva). A part of a sur&ce with little or no

hair, when the rest of it is very hairy. Ex. Ver-
tex of Melitta and Apis Kirby.

26. Glabrous {Glabra), Without any hair or pubes-

cence.

27. Lubricous [Lubrica). Slippery as if lubricated.

Ex. Dynastes Centaunis.

b. partial;

1. Cirrus (C/rrMs). A lock of curling hair.

2. CiRROSE {Cirrosa)» Having one or more cirri.

Ex. AntenruE of Lamia araneiformis.

3. Fascicule {Fasciculus). A bundle of thick-set hairs

often converging at the apex. Plate XIX.
Fig. 6.C.

4. Fasciculate (Fasciculata). Having one ot more

&scicules. Ex. Catenulated lines in the Elytra of
Trox arenosus. Buprestisfascicularis.
6. Penicil {Penicillus). A small bundle of diverging
hairs. Plate XIX. Fig. 6. a.

6. Penicillate {Penicillata). Having one or more
. penicils. Ex. Larva of Bonibyx antiqua F.

7. Verricule {Verriculum). A thick-set tuft of pa-

rallel hairs. Plate XIX. Fig. 6. b.

8. Verriculate (Verrictdata). Having one or more

verricules. Ex. Larva of Bombyx pudibunda F.
Under side of Abdomen of Megachile .^ . Latr.
{Apis ** c. 2. a. K.).

9. Barbate {Barbata). When any part is clothed

with longer hairs, resembling a beard. Ex. Anus of

276 ORISMOLOGY.

Macroghssa stdlatarum. Antennce of Cerawbyx
Ammiralis. Plate XII, Fig. 26.

10. CiLiATE {Ciliatd). When the margin is firioged

with a row of parallel hairs, Ex. The base and
apex of the Prothorax of Lucanus Cervus L.

11. YiyLBKixi^ {Fimbriata). When a part is terminated

by hairs or bristles that are not paralleL Ex. Anus
of .many Andrena: Latr.* {Melitta **. c K.).

12. CoMATE {Comata). When very long flexible hairs

thickly cover a space in the upper surface.

13. Crinite (Crinita). When very long hairs thinly

cover any space.

14. JuBATE {Jubata). Having long pendent hairs in

a continued series. Ex. Intermediate Legs of Po-
dalirius pilipes {Apis **• d. 2. a. K.).

15. Furred (PeUita). When shorter decumbent hairs

thickly cover any space, as in the Bombyces dorso
cristato L.

V. COLOUR.

1. Niveous {Niveus\ The pure unblended white of

snow. Ex. Arctia chrysorhea,

2. White {Albus). White less intense than niveous.

The colour of chalk. Ex. Arctia mendica ? .

3. Lacteous (Lacteus). White with a slight tint of

blue. The colour of milk. Ex. Geametra lac-
tearia.

4. Cream-coloured {Lactifloreus). White with a

proportion of yellow. Ex. Pale part of the /Vi-
nary wings of Callimorpha Cqja.

» Jdon, Ap. Angl, 1. /. iv. •* c. /. 1. «.

ORISMOLOGY. 279

5. Flesh-colouked (Cameus). White tinted with

red. The colour of young and healthy ^^sA.
Ex. Secondary wings of Sphinx Ligustri.

6. Hoary {Incanus)* White with a small proportion

of black. The colour of a gray head. N.B. This
term is usually confined to pubescence. Ex. Cur-
culio sulcirostris.

7. Cinereous {Cineretts). White with a shade of

brown. Ex. Brachyrhinus diffinis^ Laria pudi"
bunda.

8. Griseous (Griseus). White mottled with black

or brown. Ex. Curculio nebulosus.

9. Yellow {Flavus)» Pure yellow. Ex. Bands on the

Abdomen of Nomada {Apis *• b. K.). Crabro.

10. Straw-coloured {Stramineus). Pale yellow with

a very faint tint of blue. Ex. PhdUena cratisgata.

11. Sulphureous (Sulphureus). Yellow with a tint of

green. The colour of brimstone. Ex. Pieris
BJiamnii. -

12. LuTEOUs {Luteus). Deep yellow with a tint of red.

The colour of the yolk of an egg* Ex. Primary
wings of Colias Edusa.
IS. Orange {Aurantius). Equal parts of red and yel-
low. Ex. Apex of Wings of Pieris Cardamines.

14. Saffron-coloured [Croceus)* The colour of saf-

Jron. Ex. Yellow in the Elytra of Trichiusfasci-
atus.

15. MiNiATOUS {Miniatus). The colour of red lead.

Ex. Secondary wings of CaUimorpha Cq^a.

16. FuLGiD (Fulgidus). A bright fiery red. Ex. Z>^

ctena Virgaurece and dispar.

280 ORISMOLOGY*

17. Rufous {Rii/us). A pale red. Ex. Apionjrumen"

tarium*

18. Testaceous {Teslaceu8\ The colour of a /ife, a

dull red. Ex. Chrysomela Poptdu

19. Scarlet {Coccineus). A bright pale red* Ex. Ely-

tra of Pyrochroa coccinea,

20. Red {Ruber). Pure red. Ex. Under Wings of

Nocttui Dominula.
21* Sanguineous {Sanguineus). Red with a tint of

black. The colour of bloodL Ex. Spots ia Chi--

locorus Cacti Leach^ and Prothorax of Locusta

morbillosa,
23. Rose-coloured (2Zos«^). Colour of the ros^. Ex.

Parts of the Wings and Bocb/ of Sphinx Elpenor.
23, Crimson {Puniceus), A bright red with a tint of

blue. Ex. Base of the Under Wings of Noctua

Sponsa.
24?. Purple {Purpureus). Equal parts of blue and red.

Ex. Sagra purpurea. Vitta on the Elytra of Z)e-

naciafasciata,

25. Violet (?7oZ«ce2«). Blue with some red* The colour

of Viola odorata. Ex. Chrysomela Goettingensisy
Abdomen of Geotrupes vemalis.

26. Lilac {Lilacinus). Colour of the flowers of the

lilac Ex. Part of the Iris of the Ocellus, in the
Wings of Vanessa lo.

27. Bhvi: {Cyaneus). Pure blue. Colour of Ci^at^^a

Cyanus, Ex. Z)wA:bf the Wings of Papilio Ulysses^
CalUdium violaceum,

28. Azure (^l^t^'ez^ ). A paler and more brilliant blue.

Ex. Wings of Morpho Menelaus, Telemackusj &c.

ORISMOLOGY* 281^

29. Sky-blue [Caruleus). A paler blue. The. colour o£

the sky. Ex. lyccBna Adonis.

30. C^sious {Ccssius). Very pale blue with a little

black. The colour of Hue eyes. Ex. Under side
of tlie Wings of Lyccena Argiolus.

31. Green {Viridis). Equal parts of blue and yellow.

Ex. Cicindda campestris.
S2. JErugikous (J&^inosm). Green with a blue

tint -The colour of the rust of capper^ verdigris.

Ex. Brachyrhinus Cnides.
33. Prasinous {Prasinus). Green with a mixture of

yellow. The colour of the leaves of leeks qi^

onions. Ex. Pentatoma prasina. Under side of

Wi7igs of Theca Rubi.
34* GiJLVCoiis{Glaucus). Pale blueish green. Sea green,
. Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules, Jlcides^ Tityus,

&c.

35. Mouse-coloured {Murinus). Black with a small

proportion of yellow. The colour of the common^
mouse^ .Ex. Base of the abdominal segments of
Cossus lAgniperda.

36. Lurid {Luridus). Yellow with some mixture of

brown. Dirty yellow. Ex. Elytra of Aphodim
luridus and nigrostdcatus.

37. Livid (Lividus). A pale purplish brown. The co-

lour of a bruise. Ex. Hydrophilus luridus.

38. Tawny {Fulvus). A pale dirty orange. Ex. The

pale parts of the Wings of Hipparchia Pampkilus.

39. Fawn-coloured (Cervinus). A reddish browp.

Ex> Lasiocampa Rubi.
40f JOlivop {Olivaceus). A brownish green. The co-
lour of olives. Ex. Dytiscus marginalise

SB2 ORISMOLOGY.

41. Fuscous (Iktscus)* A dull brown. Ex. Hipparchia

Semele, Prionus scabricomis.

42. Ferruginous {Ferrtigineus), A yellowish brown

with some red. The colour of the rust of iron.
Ex. Base of Under Wings of Smerinthus Populi.
Gastrophaca quercifolia.

43. Cinnamon-coloured (Cmnafitom^if). A yellowish

brown. The colour of cinnamon. Ex. Prionus
cinnamomeus.

44. Brown (Brunneus). Pure brown. Ex. Dark parts

in the Primary Wings of Callimorpha Caja,

45. Bat {Badius). Bright red brown of the chestnut.

Ex. Elytra of Mehlontha vulgaris when the hmrs
are rubbed off.

46. Chestnut (Castaneus). Colour of the dark part of

the chestnut. Ex. Elytra of Lucanus Cervus.

47. PicEOUs (Piceus). Shining reddish black. The co-

lour of pitch* Ex. Prionus coriarius.

48. Fuliginous {Fidiginosus). The opaque black of

soot. Ex. Wings o{ Lithosia rubricoUis.

49. Black (Niger). A dull black with some brown.

Ex. Bradhyrinus niger.

50. Atrous (Ater). Pure black of the deepest tint

Ex. Liparus anglicanus.

vi. SPLENDOUR.

a. GEMMEOUS.

1. Margaritaceous {Margaritaceus). Glossy white
with changeable tints of purple, green, and blue.
The splendour oi pearls. Ex. The drums in 71?/-
tigonia capensis.

OBISMOLOUY. ^83

2 Opaline {Opalinus). A blueish white reflecting
the prismatic colours. The splendour of the opaL
£x. Wings of Notonecta glauca and some Nepc^.

S. Crystalline {CrystaUirms). The white splendour
of crystal or glass* Ex. Stemmata, of many JEfy'
menoptera^ &c.

4. ToPAZiNE {Topazinus). The yellow splendour of

the topaz. Ex. Many Stemmata of Hymenopteroy
and jSyes of Spiders,

5. RuBiNEOUS (JSudf iteus). The red splendour of the

ruby*

6. Smaragdine {Smaragdinm). The green splendour

of the emerald,

7. Amethystine {Amethystinus). The purple sploi-

dour of the amethyst*

b. METALLIC

1. Argent (i<rg«»^«tf). The splendour of ^tZv^r. Ex.

The spots on the tm^fer side of the Wings in Argyn^
nis Latkonia, &c.

2. Golden {Aureus). The splendour of gold. Ex. JE/i-

^27;22<5 imperialis Germ. iSpo^ in the Wings of ^ocw
^»a Festucae.
S. ORiCHAliCEOUs {Orichalceus). A splendour inter-
mediatd^between that of go/f? and dra^5. Ex. Up^
per Win^s-Qf Noctua Chrysitis.

4. u9Bneous {JEineus). The splendour of brass. "R^-

Elytra of Carabus clatkratus.

5. Cupreous (Ci^^tfs). The reddening splendour of

copper. Ex. Carabus nitens.

6. Chalybeous (C!to/^6^fi5). The blue splendour of

$teel case-hardened, or of the mainspring of a

284< OBisMOLoaY.

watch. Ex. Helops ckab/beus. Legs of Lithosia

Quadra.

^^ •

7. Plumbeous (P/ttm6««). The colour of ^a^L Ex.

Prothorax of Clytra dentata ?

8. IjJAURATE [Inauratus). When striae or other inu-'

pressed parts have a metallic splendour. Ex. Mar-
gin-of Prothorax and Elytra of Carabus violaceus*
Stria o{ Elytra &c. oiPhamsus Mimas M^L.

9. Deaurate (Deauratus). A metallic hue which

looks as if the gilding was worn off. Ex. Do-
nacia aenea^ &c.

C. BOMBYCINE.

!• ^SRiPSO.us (&r2V^u^). The splendour of 5i7^. Ex.

Cryptocephalus sericeus.
2. Tramosericeous (7Vam(75mc^2tf). The splendour

of satin. Ex. Chlamys Bacca^ monstrosoy &c.

d« REFLECTED.

1. Resplendent {Splendens). Reflecting the light in-

tensely. Ex. The Head and Thorax of Staphylinus
spkndens, aeneuSf politus, &c.

2. Shining (Nitidus). Reflecting the light, but less

intensely. Ex. Dytiscus marginalis.

3. Pruinose i^Pruinosus). When the splendour of the

surface is somewhat obscured by the appearance
< - of a bloom upon it like that of a plum, but which
cannot be detached. Ex. Elytra of Serica ruricola
and brunnea M*^L. {MeloUmthaY.)

4. Obscure {Obscurus). A surface which reflects the
^ ' ■ light but little. Ex. Ptelobiiis Hermanni.

'5. Opaque {Opacus). A -surface which does not re-

ORI8MOLOGY. 2fiS

fleet the light at all. Ex. Trox sabtdomsi arena^
rius. Silpha opaca,

vii. TRANSPARENCE.

1. Hyaline {Hyalina}. The clear transparency of
glass. Ex. The Wings of many Neuroptera^ Hy^
menopteraj and Diptera,

2« Diaphanous {Diaphana). Transparent, but lessr
purely than hyaline. Semitransparent. Ex. The
Wings of many Coleoptera.

S. Adiaphanous {Adiaphana). Which does not trans-
mit the light at alL Ex. Elytra of Ccieoptera.

viil PAINTING.

1. Atom {Atomus). A very minute dot

2. Ierorate [Irrorata). Sprinkled with atoms, as the

earth with dew. Ex. Ontkophagus Vaccc^ Pa-
pilio Paris,

3. GuTTA {Gutta^). A roundish dot, intermediate in

size between an atom and a macula.

4. GuTTATE (Guttata). Sprinkled with guttle. Ex.

Coccinella L.

5. ^MjiCVi^K {Macula). A larger indeterminately shaped

spot

6. Maculate [Maadata). Painted with such spots.

Ex. PhaUena grossulariata.

7. LiTURA {Litura). An indeterminate spot growing

paler at one end, as if daubed or blotted.

8. LiTURATE (Liturata). A surface painted with one

or more such spots. Ex. Apkodius conflagratus.

* Liiin6 in Coccinella has employed the term Guita for a white or
yellow spot in a darker ground, and PusttUa for a red spot in a black
ground. We thought one term sufficient to express spots bigger
than atoms.

286, omsMOLOGT.

9» Flaoa {Plaga). A long and large spot* ISx^Aphn
ditis plagiaius*

10* Islet (Insula), A spot of a different colour, included
in a plaga or macula. Ex. The Ocelli in the Pri-
mary Wings of Hipparchia Semele. A spot in the
middlefa^scia of the under side of the Primary Wing
in Papilio Podalirius.

tl. Crepera {Crepera). A gleam of paler colour upon
a dark ground. Ex. Elytra oiDytiscus marginalis.

12. Shadow (l/mdra). A slight shade, not easily per-

ceptible upon a paler ground. 'EiTi. Elytra oiLa-
mia .^idilis. Wings of Tinea aspereUa.

13. Signatures {Signature). Markings upon a sur-

face resembling in some degree letters and cha.
racters.

14. Signate (Signatus). Marked with signatures.

Ex. Elytra of Macropus Icngimanus.

15. Inscribed (Inscriptus). When the sur&ce is marked

with the resemblance of a letter of any language.
Ex. Noctua Gamma. Vanessa C album*

16. Hieroglyphic (Hieroglypkicus), Painted with cha-

racters somewhat resembling hierogl}^hics. Ex.
Macropus longimanus. Cetonia Australasiip.
1*7. Annulet (Annulus). A ring-shaped spot Ex*
Phdkena omicronaria, &c. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. o.

18. LuNULET (Lunula). A small crescent-shaped spot.

Ex. Marginal spots above and below the Secondary
Wings in Argynnis Artemis, &c.

19. Reniculus {Beniculus). A small kidney-shaped

spot Ex. Upper Wings o( Noctua Persicaricu

20. Ocellus {Ocellus). An eye-like spot in the Wir^s

of many LepidopterOy consisting of annuU of dif-
ferent colours, inclosing a central spot or pupil*

ORISMOLOOY* 287

a. Pupil {PupiUa). The central spot of the ocellus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. ^. An ocellus is called bipu-
pillate, tripupillate, &c., when there are two^
three, &c. of these spots. Ex. Primary Wing oS
Hipparchia Pihselke, &c. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. p.

a. Hastate Pupil [Pupilla hastata). When the pu-

pil is a halbert-shaped spot. Ex. Ptq>il of Ocellus
oiAttacus Tau. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. *.
A. SuFFULTED PuPiL {PupiUa suffidta). When the
pupil shades into another colour. Ex. Primary
Wing of Vanessa lo.

b. Iris (/m). The circle which incloses the pupil*

Plate XIV. Fig. 1. u.

c. Atmosphere [AtmospJuera). The exterior circle

of the ocellus. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. v.

21. Blind Ocellus {Ocellus cacus). An ocellus with-

out the pupil. Elx. Hipparchia Davus.

22. Spurious Ocellus {Ocellus spurius). A circular

spot without any defined iris or pupil. Ex. I^ot
in the Disk of the Primary Wings of Pieris Helice.

23. Simple Ocellus {Ocellus simplex). When the

ocellus consists Only of iris and pupil. Ex. Ocelii
on the under tide oiPrimary Wings of Hipparchia
Semele. Plate XIV. Fig. l.t^n^ u.

24. Compound Ocellus {Ocellus complexus). When

the ocellus consists -of three or more circles. Ex.

m

Satumia Pavonia. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. /.

25. T!iicffirA^T Ocellus {Ocellus nictitans). When the

ocellus includes a lunular spot of a different co-
lour. Ex. Under side of Wings of Marpho Perseus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. m.

26. Fenestrate Ocellus {OceUusJene^ratus). When

1

288 oRisMO£oay*

#

an ocelhid has a transparent spot. lEtX. Aitacus
Paphia and Cytherea,

27. DioPTRATE Ocellus (Oc^Kms dfop/rfl/e<5). A fenes-

trate ocellus divided by a transverse line^ Ex.
Attacus PolyphemiLs.

28. Double Ocellu's [Ocellus geminatus\ When two

ocelli are included in the same circle or spot. Ex.
Underside of Secondary Wing of Merpho Perseus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. r, w.

S9. Twin Ocellus (Ocelltis didymus). When such
ocellijoin each other. Ex. Underside o( Secondary
Wing oi Hipparchia Hyperantkus.

30. Sesquialtebous Ocellus {Ocellm sesquialterus).
An ocellus with a smaller near it^ called £^so Ses-
quiocellus. Ex. Under side of Secondary Wing of
Pieris Edtisa. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. y. .

SI. SupEECiLiUM (Supercilium). An arched line re-
sembling an eyebrow, which sometimes surmounts
an eyelet/ Exi Under side of Secondary Wing of
Morpho Achilles. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. i.

S2i Nebulose {Nebiilosus). Painted with colour irre-
gularly darker and lighter, so as ta exhibit some
resemblance of clouds. Ex. Curculio sulcirostrisj
nebtdosus / Noettm nupta.

SS. T'E.BT:vm^hB,iovs{Testudinarius). Painted with red,
black, and yellow, like tortoise-shell. Ex. Elytra
of Aphodius testtedinarius.

Sif. CoNSPERSE (Cottsperstis). Thickly sprinkled with
minute irregular dots often confluent. Ex. Geo^
metra Bettdaria.

35. AcHATiNE {Ackatintis). Painted with various con-
centric, curved, or parallel lines, resembling the

ORISMOLOGY. 289

veining of an agate. Ex. CossUs labyrinthicus

Donov. Cerura vinula.
36. UsTULATE {Usttdata). So marked with brown as

to have the appearance of being scorched. Ex.

Wings of Phahsna dolabraria*
37- M ARMORATE (Manwora/fl). So painted with streaks,

veins, and clouds, as to resemble marble. Ex. Ur^-

der side of the Wings of Vanessa lo, Cetonia mar^

morata.

38. Tessellate ( Tessellata). Painted in checquer-work.

Ex. Abdomen of Musca camaria and mactdata.

39. Fascia {Fascia). A broad transverse band.

a. Pyramidate Fascia {Fascia pyramidata). A band

which juts out into an angle on one side. Ex. Wing
oi Apatura Iris. Argynnis Papkia. Plate XIV.

Fig. 1. h.

b. Macular Fascia {Fascia mactdaris). A band con-*

sisting of distinct spots. Ex. Wings of Geometra
grossulariata. Plate XIV. Fia. I. b.

c. Articulate Fascia {Fascia ariiculata). A band

consisting of contiguous spots. Ex. Under side of
Wings of Argynnis Diciynna. Upper side of JF^7-
mary Wing of Papilio Menelaus.

d. Dimidiate Fascia {Fascia dimidiata). A band

traversing only half the wing. Ex. Primary Wing
oi Papilio Turnus. Plate XIV. Fig. l.f.

e. Abbreviate Fascia {Fascia ahbreviata). A band

traversing less than hq.lf the wing. Ex. Primary
Wing df Papilio Podalirius, j^a;, &c. Plate
XIV. Fig. 1. g.
f. Sesquialterous Fascia {Fascia sesquialiera)^
When both wings are traversed by a cpntinu^

VOL. IV. u

290 pRISMOLOGY.

band) and either the primary or secondary by an-
other. Ex. Endromis versicolor. Plate XIV.
Fig. 1 . <f, c.
g. Sesquitertiovs Fascia {Fascia sesquitertia). When
both wings are traversed by a continued band, and
more than half of either the primary or secondary
by another ; or, when a wing or elytrum contains
a band and the third of a band. £x. Pyralis Avel-
lana. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. d, ^.

40. Striga {Striga). A narrow transverse streak.

41. Strigose {Strigosa), Painted with several such

streaks. Ex. PhaUena prunaria.

42. Line {Linea). A narrow longitudinal stripe.

43. LiNEATE {Lineata). Painted with several such

stripes. N.B. If with two, we say bilineata, with
three, trilineata^ &c. Ex. Elater lineatus.

44. ViTTA (Vitfa). A broad longitudinal stripe.

45. ViTTATE {Vittata). Painted with several such

stripes. Ex. Chrysomelafastuosa^ cereaUsj &c.

46. Undulate ( Undtdata), When fasciae, strigae, lines,

&c. curve into alternate sinuses resembling the
rise and fall of waves.

47. Sinuato-Undulate (Sinuato^Undtdata). When

the sinuses are obtuse. Ex. Phahena repandaria.

48. Anguloso-Undulate {Jnguloso^Uiidulaia). When
. they go in a zigzag direction, or with alternate

acute sinuses. Ex. Phalana undtdaria.

49. Radiate {Radiata). When a dot, spot, &c. appear

to send forth rays. Ex. The large blue area com-
mon to all the Wings of Papilio Ulysses.

50. Venose \Venosa). Painted with lines that branch

like veins. Ex. Under side pf Wir^s of Pieris Napt,

ORISMOLOOY* 291

51. Cangellate (Cancellata). Painted with transverse

lines crossing longitudinal ones at right angles.
Ex. PhaUsna clathrata.

52. Areolate (Areolata), Fainted with lines which

intersect each other in various directicMis^ so as to
exhibit the appearance of net-work. Ex. Wings
of Phasia marginata and Cossm Ugniperdq*

53. LiMBATE {Limbata)* When the disk is surrounde4

by a margin of a different colour. Ex. Dytiscus
marginalis.

54. Armillate {Armillata\ When a leg, antenna, &c.

is surrounded by a broad ring of a different colour.
Ex. Posterior Tibia otProsopis annulata [Melitta *
b. K.).

55. Annulate (Annulata). When a leg, antenna, &c..

is surrounded by a narrcm ring of ^ different co*-
lour. Ex. Antennce of many Ichneumons.

56. CiNGULAfE (Cingidata). When the abdc»nien or

Ae tmaik ia wholly surrounded by oil^ or more
belts of a different colour. Ex. Abdomen of many
Nomada (Apis *. b. K.).

57. Decolorate (Decolor). When the colouri^ears

to be discharged from any part. Ex. Margin of
the Abdominal segments in Stelis punetulatissima
Latr. (Apis ** c. I. ^ K.).

58. Unicolorate (Unicohr). When a sur&ce is of

one colour.

59. CoNcoLOR ATE ( Concolor). Of the same colour with

another part. If speaking of Lepidoptera^ when
the upper and under sides of the wings are of the
same colour. Ex. Uesperia Linea, Panisais.

60. Discoi^ORATE (Discolor). Of a different cdour from

u 2

292 ORISMOLOGY.

another part. When the upper and under sides
of the wings of Lepidoptera are of a different co-
lour. Ex. Lycama Corydon^ ArgioltiSj &c.

61. Versicolorate {Versicolor), When a surface

changes its colour as the light varies. Ex. Apa-
tura Iris^.

62. Iridescent {Tricolor). When a surface reflects the

colours of the rainbow. Ex. Mesothorax of Xylo-
copa iricolor. Wings oiHymenoptera, &c.

63. Infuscate {In/iiscata). When a colour is darkened

by the superinduction of a brownish shade or
cl^ud. Ex. Apex of the Upper Wings of Cossus
ligniperda,

ix. DISTINCTION.

1. Distinct {Distincta). When spots, puncta, gra-

nules, &c. do not touch or run into each other, but
are completely separate. Ex. Under side o( Wings
oi Lycana dispar.

2. Ordinate {Ordinata). When spots, puncta, &c.

are placed in raws. Thus we say ordinato-punc-
tate, ordinato-maculate, &c. Ex. Spots on the
Abdomen of Arctia lubricipeda^ erminea, &c.

3. Contiguous {Contigua). When spots, &c are so

near that they almost or altogether touch each
other. Ex. Spots in the margin of the Wings o£
Argynnis Aglaia.

4. Confluent {Confiuens). When spotis, &c. run into

each other. Ex. Apex of the Primary Wings and
Under side of the Secondary in Pieris Daplidice.

5. Obliterate {Obliterata). When the borders of

spots fade into the general ground-colour; and

ORISMOLOGY. 29S

• \vben elevations and depressions, &c. are so little
raised or sunk from the general siir&ce, as to be
almost erased. Ex. Streak in the Wings of Geo^
metra papilio7iariaj &c. Strice in the Elytra of
Sphodrus Uucopthalmus.
6^ Obsolete {Obsoleta). When a spot, tubercle,
punctum, &c. is scarcely discoverable. Ex. Ly-
ccena dispar <? and ? .— N.B. This term ii often em-
ployed *mhere one sex, kindred species^ or genera,
want, or nearly so, a character *mhich is conspicuous
in the other sex, or in the species or genus to which
they are most closely allied. *

7. Geminous (Gemina), When there is a pair of

spots, tubercles, puncta, &c. Ex. Head of one
sex of Lucanus parallelopipedus. Upper Wings of
Odenesis potatoria.

8. DiDYMOUS {Didyma). When this pair of spots, &c.

touch or are confluent Ex. Spots in Elytra of
Stenocorus quadrimactdatus.
9* CoNNiYENT (Connivens). The meeting of two lines
so as to form an angle. Ex. Streaks on the Under
side of Secondary Wings of Thecla Pruni.
10. Common {Communis). Common to two. When a
spot &r instance is partly on one elytrum and partly
on the other. Ex. Coccinella septempunctata.

X. MARGIN.

1. Cnisv (Cri^a). When the iz/»6 is disproportion-

ably larger than the Disk, so as to render the mar-
gin uneven with irregular rises and falls.

2. Undulate ( Undulata). When the surface rises and

falls obtusely, not in angles. Ex. Margin of Wings
of Hipparchia Semele.

294 OBISJttOLOOY.

3. ConfiV GATE {Corrugata), When the surface rises and

falls acutely in angles. Ex. Pkaltena luteaia, &c.

4. Plicate {Plkata). Longitudinally or truisversely

folded ; or so impressed with striae as to have that
appearance. Ex. Abdomen of Staphylinus.

5. DiLATATE {Dilatata), Dilated disprc^rtionably

with respect to the Disk. Ex. Prothorax of Ne-
crophorm^

6. FiLATE {Filata), When the edge is separated by a

channel, often producing a very slender threadlike
margin. Ex. Elytra of Choleva.

7. Incrassate {Incrassata). When the margin is dis-

proportioaiably thick* Ex. Mr. Marsham's Family
of Chrysomela ^^ thorace utrinque incrassato.''

8. Entire {Integra). When the margin Eas neither

teeth, serratures, nor other incisions.
Q. Channel {Cdnalis). An impressed line more or
less wide, which attends the edges, and is usually
produced by its reflexion,
IQ, Eno^ (Acies), ITie extreme termination of the
margin*

xi. TERMINATION.
!• Summit {Fastigium), The tip or extreme termina-
tion of the u{^r part.

2. Apbx {Apea:), The top or upper termination of any

part

3. Bottom {Fundus), The extreme termination of the

lower part.

4. Base {JBasis\ The lower termination of ^y part.

5. Acute {Acuta), Terminating in an acute angle.

Plate XV. Fig. 17.

6. Obtuse {Obtusa). Terminating bluntly, but within

the segment of a circle. Plate XIV. Fig. 1 . f.

ORISMOLOGY. 295

7. RotUNDATE {Rotundata), Terminating in the seg-

ment of a circle, Plate VL Fig. 1. e.

8. Truncate {Truncatd), Terminating in a trans-

verse line. Plate XIII. Fig. 5. a'".

9. Premorse [Prtemorsa). Terminating in an irre-

gular truncate apex, as if bitten off. Ex. Elytra
of Lebia^ Dromia^ Lomechusa^ &c.

10. Retuse (Retusa). Terminating in an obtuse sinus.

Ex. Back part of the Head in Cimbew.

11. Emarginate {Emarginata). When the end has

an obtuse notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Pedinus
arenosus.

12. Exscinded {Excisa), When the end has an angu-

lar notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Opatrum sa^

bulosum.
IS. Producted (Prodwcto). Disproportionably long.
14-. Mucronate {Mucronata). Terminating suddenly
♦ in a strong point. Ex. Elytra of Ltanis parapleC'

ticus. Abdomen of Sirex Gtgas ? .

15. AcvMiVA'fB {Acuminata)* Terminating gradually in

a sharp point. Ex. Abdomen oiSirex Juvencus ? .

16. Apiculate (Apictdata), Terminating suddenly in

a small filiform truncate apex. Ex. Abdomen of
Tkeh/pAontcs.

17. CusviDATE {Cuspidata), Terminating in a long se-

tiform point Ex. TaU of Scorpio.

xu. INCISION.

1. Incised (Incisa). Cut into equal marginal seg-

ments.

2. Cleft {Fissa), Cut into equal and deep segments,

but not reaching the base. Plate XIV. Fig, 3. a.

296 oRisMOLoay.

a. Biwii} {Bifida). Cut into ftt^ segments*

b. Trifid [Trifida), Cut into three.

c. QuADRiFiD {Quadrifida). Cut into^Jw^'.

d. MuLTiFiD {Multifida). Cut into more thsLuJour*

3. Laciniate {Laciniata). Cut into unequal, irregu-

lar, and deep segments,

4. Squarrose [Squanosa). Cut into lacinise that are

elevated above the plane of the surface.

5. Partite {Partita). Divided to the base. Plate

XIV. Fig. 3. b.

a. Bipartite {Bipartita). Divided thus into two

parts.

b. Tripartite ( Tripartita). Divided into three parts.

c. Quadripartite (Qttfl</r/par/tVa). Divided into^Zw/r

parts.

d. Multipartite {Multipartita). Divided into more

than^oMr parts.

6. LoBATE {Lobata). Divided to the middle into parts

with convex margins, which recede from each
other. Ex. Acanthia paradoxa. Bilobate^ with
two lobes. Trilobate, with three lobes, &c.
7% Cruciate {Cruciata). Divided to the middle into
four opposite arms, the angles being either four
right ones, or two obtuse and two acute. Ex. Pro-
thorax of many Locustce Leach.

8. Sinuate {Sinuata). Having large curved breaks

in the margin resembling bays. Plate XIV.
Fig. 1.

9. Erose {Erosa). Sinuate, with the. sinuses cut out

into smaller irregular notches as if gnawed. Ex.
Wings of Vanessa C. album.
10. Crenate {Crenata). Cut into segments of small
circles.

0RISM0L06Y. 297

11. Serrate {Se9rata). Cut into teeth like a saw, with

teeth whose sides are unequal. Ex. External mar"
gin near the Apex of the Elytra of many species of
Buprestis.

12. Dentate {Dentata), Cut into teeth, with teetli

whose sides are equal or nearly so. Ex. The
Wings of many Butterflies,

13. Repand {Repanda). Cut into veiy slight sinua-

tions, so as to run in a serpentine direction. Plate
XXII. Fig. 11. s.

xiii. RAMIFICATION.

1. DiCHOTOMOUs (Dichotoma). Dividing regularly in

pairs.

2. Furcate {Furcata). Dividing into two. Plate

XVIII. Fig. 11.

3. Ramose {Ramosa). Furnished with lateral branches.

Plate XL Fig. 18.
4?. Decussate (Decussata). Sending forth lateral

branches which alternately cross each other.
5. Divaricate {Divaricata). Standing out very wide.

xiv. DIVISION.

1. Segment (Segmentum). The great inosculating

joints of the body.

2. Joint {Artictdus). The joints of a limb or member.

3. Incisure {Incisura). A deep incision between the

segments, when they recede from each other.

4. Suture {StUura). The line of separation of any

two parts of a crust which are connected only by
membrane or ligament, but do not inosculate,
a. Spurious Suture {Sutura spuria). An impressed

298 ORISMOLOGY.

line in any part of a body, which resembles a su-
ture, but does not really divide the crust.

XV. DIRECTION.

1. Longitudinal {Longitudinalis). Running length-

wise.

2. Transverse ( Transversa), Running across : when

the longitudinal line is cut through at rig^/ angles.

3. Oblique {Obliqua). Running sideways. When

the longitudinal line is cut through at acute angles.

4. Horizontal (Horizontalis). Parallel with the ho-

rizon.

5. Erect (Erecta)* Nearly perpendicular.

6. Vertical {Verticalis), Perpendicular.
7- Sloping {Declivis)* A gentle descent

8. Descending (Descendens). A steeper descent

9. Acclivous (Acclivis). A gentle ascent.

10. Ascending {Ascendens). A steeper ascent

1 1. Reclined {Reclinafa). Leaning towards any thing

as if to r^ose upon it

12. Recumbent {Recumbens). Leaning or reposing

upon any thing.

13. Reflexed {Refkxa\ Bent back or upwards.
l*. Inflexed {iTtflexa). Bent inwards.

15. Recurved {Recurva), Curving outwards.

16. Incurved {Incuroa). Curving inwards.

17. Revolute {Revoluta). Rolled outwards.

18. Involute {InvoltUa). Rolled inwards.

19. Forwards (Antrorsum).

20. Backwards {Retrorsum).

21. Upwards (Sursum).

22. Downwards (Dearsum),

OKISMOLOGY. 299

23. Outwards (Extrorsum).

24f. Inwards {Introrsum).

25. SxRAiaHT {Recta).

26. Pqrrect {Porre<:ta)n Reaching forth horuaontally

as if to meet something advancing.

27. Broken (jFracto). Bent with an elbow, as if broken.

28. Converging {Convergens). Tending to one point

from different parts.

29. Diverging {Divergens). Tending to different parts

from one point

xvi. SITUATION.

1. Obverse {Obversa). When an object is viewed

with its head towards you«

2. Reverse {Reversa), When an object is viewed

with its anu^ towards you.
S. Resupine {Resupina). When an object lies upon
its back.

4. Prone {Prona). When an object lies upon its belly.

xvil. CONNEXION.

1. Colligate {Colligata). Adhering, or so fixed to

any part as to have no separate motion of its own.

2. Free {Libera). Having a motion independent of

that of the part to which it is afBxed.

5. Connate {Connata). When parts that are usually

separated, are, as it were, soldered together,
though distinguished by a suture. Ex. Elytra of
Gibbium.
4. Coalite {Coalita). When parts usually sq)arate
are distinguished neither by incisure^ segment, nor
suture. Ex. l\nink in Mutilla.

500 ORISMOLOGY.

5. Distinct {Distincta). When parts are separated

from each other by a suture. Ex. Parts of the

Trunk in Coleoptera^ &c.
J6. Distant {Distans). When they are separated by

^n incisure. Ex. Head^ Trunks and Abdomen^ in

Hymenoptera.

7. Inosculating {Inosculans). When one part is in-

serted into the cavity of another. Ex. Head in
Buprestis.

8. Suspended {Suspensa). When one part is joined

to another by a ligature, without being inserted in
it. Ex. Legs of Orthoptera,

xviii. ARMS.

1. Tooth {Dens). A short fiattish process, somewhat

resembling a tooth.

2. Horn {Comu). A longer process, resembling a

horn.

a. Laminate Horn {Comu laminatum). A horn di-

lated at its base into a fiat plate. Ex. Onthopha-
gus nutans.

b. Nodding Horn {Comu nutans). When a horn

bends forwards. Ex. Onthophagus nutans.

3. Spine {Spina). A fine, long, rigid, pointed process.

Ex. Those on Elytra of many Hispce^ and the
Posterior Tibice of Locusta Leach.

4. MucRO {Macro). A short, stout, sharp-pointed

process. Ex. Elytra of Lianis paraplecticus.

5. Spur {Calcar). A spine that is not a process of the

crust, but is implanted in it. Ex. Those on the
lower side of the Tibia of AaHda K.

ORISMOLOGY. 301

xix. APPENDAGES.

1, Auricle {Auricula)* An appendage resembling

an ear. Ex. Thorax of Ledra aurita,

2. Ckrv^cle. {Caruncida). Having fleshy excrescences

somewhat resembling the caruncles of birds. Ex.
Prothai^ax of Malachius F.

XX. MOTION.

1. Vertical {Veirticalis). When it is up and down.

2. Horizontal {Hm^izontalis), When it is from side

to side.

3. Compound {Composita). When a part is capable

of both vertical and horizontal motion.

4. Versatile {Versatilis). When it moves partly

round as if upon a pivot. Ex. Head of Hymeno^
ptera and Diptera.

5. ViBRATiLE {Vibratilis). When there is a constant
, oscillation of any part. Ex. Antennae of IchneU"

manes minuti L. Legs of Tiptda when reposing.

6. Rotatory {Rotatoria). When a body or a pari of

it turns wholly round, or describes a circle. Ex.
Ants and Moths in a certain disease^.

xxi. SCENT.

1. Acid {Acidus)* A pungent acid scent, ^x. Many
Formicce.

2. MOSCHATE (ilf05cAa^2^). A SCCUt of ^2^^.

3. Alliaceous (Alliaceus). A scent of garlic. Ex.

Some Andrena Latr.

4. CiMiciNE (Cimicinus). A scent like that of the

Bed-bug. Ex. Cimex L.

* See above, p. 209 — ,

902 ORISMOLOGY.

5. Rosaceous {Rosaceus). A scent of roses. Ex. CaUi-

chroma mosckatum.

6. Aromatic {Aromattcus). A pungent scent of spices.

Ex. Oaytelm mgostis.

7. Balm-scented {Melissaus), Ex. Species ofProsopis

Latr. {Apis *. b. K,)

8. Sweet-scented {Odoratus). An undefined sweet

scent Ex. StaphylivM adm^atm K.

9. Fetid {Fcetidus\, A disagreeable scent. Ex. Sta-
phylinus okm* Hemerobius Perla^

GENERAL RULES.

In the above tables no notice is taken of diminutives,
compounds^ and similar terms, because it seemed best,
with respect to these, to lay down only some general
rules which may include the whole.

Rule I.

Terms in English endkig in de^ tde, or let^ and which
in Latia add bis, loj or lumi to a word, diminish its sense.
As, Denti^rfe, a little tooth ; Seti^, a little bristle ; Ey/^,
a small eye : Denticu/ttf, a little dens ; GuttuZa, a little
gutta ; Vunctalumy a little punctum. N.B. Where length
or breadth are concerned, the diminutive implies a di-
minution in the length of the predicate. As, LineoZa,
Lineo/^^, a short line ; Strio^o, Strio^, a short stria ;
FascioZa, Fasdo^^^, a short fascia.

Rule U*

The preposition sub prefixed to any word reduces the
sense of it As, 5u6punctate, not fully punctate ; jSu&hir-
sute, not fully hirsute, &c.

ORI8MOLOGY. 305

Rule III*

The termination cuius in Latin words added to a com-
parative implies the state of the object comparatively.
As, Convexiusr2//2^9 rather convex than not ; M&juscu^
lusj rather large than not. This is usually denoted in
English by the termination zsA, or the adverb rather ;
as, larg/sA, rather large, &c.

Rule IV.

The participle present used instead of the adjective
implies a tendency to the quality expressed by it. As,
Cinerascens, cinerascent, tending to cinereous, &c.

Rule V.
The preposition ob prefixed to a term reverses it.
As, O^conical, Odcordate, a conical or heart-shaped
body, of which the narrowest part is the base.

Rule VI.

In compound terms the last member indicates the
preponderating character. For instance, when it is said
of a body that it is nigro-^neous^ it means that the aeneous
tint prevails : but if, vice versa, it is termed aneo^igrouSf
the black tint is predominant N.B. In Sculpture the
terms punctato-striate, or punctato-sulcate, signify that
strise or furrows are drawn with puncta in them.

Exception I.
Some compound terms only indicate the union of two
characters in one subject. As, when Wjb say of wings that
they are cruciato-incumbent, we mean both that they
cross each other and are incumbent upon the body.

Exception 2.
Compound terms are sometimes employed very con-

S04 ORISMOLOGY.

veniently to restrict the application of a character to par-
ticular circumstances. As, when we say hirsuto-ci-
nereous, we mean that the hirsuties only of a body is

cinereous.

Rule VII.

When the term ordinary {ordinarius) is added either
to terms expressing impressed puncta, lines, spots, &c.,
it signifies that such puncta, lines, or spots are common
to a particular section in any genus or tribe. As, the
impressed lateral puncta on the thorax of ScardbceidiB
M^L. ; the lateral furrows and dorsal channel in Harpa-
lus^ &c. I and the spots in the primary wings of Noctua
Polyodon and affinities^.

SYMBOLS.

Male c?. Female ? . Neuter ? . Egg t . Larva©. Pupa J) .
Imago ©. Head A. Trunk D. Abdomen v **•

B. PARTIAL ORISMOLOGY.

I. BODY {Corpus).

1. Disjunct (Disjunctum). When head, trunk, and

abdomen are separated by a deep incisure. Ex.
Hymenaptera, Diptera. Plate IV. Fig. 2, 8, 5.

2. Compact {Compactum). When head, trunk, and

abdomen are not separated by a deep incisure, but
inosculate in each other. Ex. Buprestis^ Elater^

^ As tiiis work is intended for general readers as well as for the
learned, the above rules, &c., it is hoped will not be deemed with-
out use.

^ These symbols are inserted here, because they may be very con-
veniently adopted in a correspondence on the subject of Entomology.

ORISMOL06Y. SOS

and many other Coleopteta^ OrthopterOj and He^
miptera.

3. Bis£CT (Biseclum). When die head and trunk are

not separated by a suture, so that the insect con-
sists only of two pieces. Ex. Aranea L. Plate V.
Fig. 4.

4. Coalite {Coalitum). When neither head, trunk,

nor abdomen are separated by any incisure or su-
ture. Ex. Many Acari L., Phalat^ium^ &c.

5* TAvjjnsECJ: {Mvltisectum). When an insect appears
to have no distinct trunk and abdomen, but is di-
vided into numerous segments. Ex. Scolopendra;
luluSi &c. Plate V. Fig. 6.

6. Cymbiform {Cymbiforme), When the margin of
the thorax and elytra are recurved so as to give a
body the resemblance of the inside of a boat. Ex.
Helaus^ Cossyphtis.

II. HEAD {Caput).

i. DIRECTION.

1, Prominent {Promtnens). When the head is in the

horizontal line, and forms no angle with the trunk.
Ex. Carabus L. Plate I. Fig. I.

2. Porrected {Porrectumy When the head is pro-

minent and elongate. Ex. Cychrus.

5. Nutant (Nutans). When the head forms down-

wards an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, or
trunk. Ex. Harpalus.
4. Cbrnuous {Cemuum). When the head forms
downwards a right angle with the trunk. Ex.
Most Gtylli L.

VOL. IV. X '

306 ORISMOI.OGY.

6. Inflexed {Infiexum). When the head fimns in-
wards an acute angle with the trunk. Ebc. ^latta.
Plate IL Fig. S.

6. TuRBETED {Turritum). When the head is pro-
ducted into a kind of columnar recunred turret or
rostrum, in the sides of which, towards the end,
the eyes are fixed. Ex. Truxalis.

ii. INSERTION.

1. Retracted (^Retractum). When the head is wholly

wididrawn within the trunk. Ex. Parmis.

2. Intruded {Intrustm)* When the head is nearly

withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Melasis.

3. Inserted (Insertum). When the head is partly

withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Buprestis*

4. Exserted {Ewsertum). When the head is quite

disengaged from the trunk. Ex. Tendnio^ Blaps.

5. Amplected {Ampleanm). When the head is re-

ceived into a sinus of the thorax. Ex. Hister.

6. Recondite {Recondilum), When the head is wholly

covered and sheltered by the shield of the thorax.
Ex. Cassida^ Lamjn/ris.

7. Semirecondite {Semireconditwn)^ When the head

is half covered by the shield of the thorax* Ex.
Silpha, Ofphon*

8. Retractile {Relractile). When an insect can at

pleasure exsert its hettd, or withdraw it within the
trunk. Ex. Hister^ Larva ofLampyris.

9. Versatile (Versatile). When the head can turn

nearly roiud. Ex. Ht/menoptera^ Ddpiera.
10. Pedunculate {Peduncidatum). When the head is

ORISMOLOGY. 907

cfltwlrip^nd b^and into a distinct neck. £<• Apo^
derus Cotyli, &(%
!!• Sessile (Sessile). When the head does not more
in the socket of the trunk, but is fittached to it by
a kind of ligament Ex4 Hymenoptera^ Diptera*

iH. TERMINATION-

!• Cltpeate {Clypeahm). When the NasuSf Getue^
&c. are dilated so as to shelter and overshadow
the mouth. Ex. ScarabSus M^L. CoprtSf &c.
Plate XIII. Fig. 14.

2. Capistrate {Capistratum). When the anterior

part of the head is attenuated and subelongated
into a kind oi fiat rosU'um or muzzle. Ex. Niti^
dula. Plate XIIL Fig. 13.

3. Rostrate ifiostratum). When the anterior part

of the head is elongated and attenuated into a cy^
lindrical or many-sided rostrum or beak. Ex. Cluir-
adio L. Plate Xlll. Fig. 12.

4. Buccate {Buccaium). When the Nasus and ante-

rior pait of the head are inflated. £x« Conops and
other Diptera. Plate XIII. Fig. 16.

iv. APPENDAGES.

1. Umbraculate {Umbraculatum}, When diere is

upon the head an nmbrella-shaped process. Ex*
Acheta UTfdfraeidata*

2. LvcttNintATE {Lycknidiatum). When the Vertex^

R'onSf and Postnasus are porrected so^ as to form a
kind of rostrum which gives light in the night.
Ex. Fidgora. Plate XIlI. Fro. 15.

x2

S08 ORTSMOLOGY.

V. MOUTH (04

L Terminal {Tefminale). When the mouth teniii-
nates the head. Ex. Coleoptera^ &c.

2. Prone (Prontwi). When the mouth is wholly uh-
der the head. Ex. Truxalis^ Proscopia.

S. Ferfbct (Perfectum). When the mouth is furnished
with all the Trophi. Viz. habrum; Labiumi
MandibuUe ; Maxillce ; Maxillary and Labial
Palpi s and Tongue. Ex. The Masticating Orders.

a. Feeders retracted ( Trophi retracti). When, in

a perfect mouth, the Trophi are not capable of be-
ing much pushed out or drawn m. Ex. Most Co-
leoptera^ Orthoptera^ &c.

b. Feeders RETRACTILE (7rqpAir^/rac^//e5). When,

in a perfect mouth, the Trophi can be considerably
pushied forth or drawn in. Ex. Stenus, Apis^ &c.

4. Imperfect {Imperfectum). When the mouth wants

any of the Trophi^ or they exist in it only as rudi-
ments. Ex. The Suctorious Orders.

5. Elabrate {Elabratum). When an imperfect mouth

has Mandibuhe, Maxilla^ Labium^ and Maxillary
Palpif or what perform their office, but no Labrum.
Ex. Araneidce.

6. Emandibulate {Emandibulatum). When an im-

perfect mouth has all the Trophi but the Mandi--
buUe. Ex. Trichoptera Kirby.

7. BiPALPATE (Bipalpattim). When an imperfect

mouth has only either Labial or Maxillary Palpi.
Ex. Tabanus^ &c.

8. ExPALPATE {Expalpatum). When an imperfect

mouth has no Palpi, Ex. Hemiptera.

ORI8MOLOGY. 309

9. Stomavodovs {Stomapodum). When the 2/^i and
Sternum act the part of MaxiUiEy Labium^ and
Palpi. Ex. Araneidce^ Scolopendra^ &c.

a. UPPER LIP {Labrum).

K Whiskered {Mystacinum). When the upper lip
is furnished with whiskers {Myst(ix\ or bearded.
Ex, Creophilus hirtus K. Plate XXVI. Fig. SO.

b. UPPER JAWS {Mandibuhe).

1. Chelate {Chelata). When the upper jaws are fur-

nished at the end with a chela or thumb. Ex. Stror-
piOf Phalangium.

2. Unguiculate {Unguictdatie). When they are

armed with a moveable claw. Ex. Araneidte.
Plate VII. Fig. 10. c'.

3. Buried {Septdta). When they are covered and

quite concealed by the upper lip. Ex. Collyuris.

4. Open {Aperta;). When they are not quite concealed

by the upper lip. Ex. Most Coleoptera.

5. Toothless {Edenttdce). When they are not armed

with teeth. Ex. Apogonia gemellata K. Plate
XXVI. Fig. 22.

6. Toothed {Dentatce). When they are armed with

teeth. Ex. Cicindela. Plate XXVI. FiG. 19.
7- Suctorious {Suctorial). When they have an ori-
fice by which they imbibe their food. Ex. Larva
of Dytiscm^ Myrmeleon^ &c. Plate XIII. Fig. 6.

C. UNDER JAWS {MoxilUs).

1. Simple {Simplices). When the under jaws have but
one lobe. Ex. Hymenoptera. Plate VII. Fig. 2,
3. d'.

310 ORISMOLOaY,

a. Compound (Compo&itas). When tibey have more
than one lobe. Ex. Staphyiinus and many other
Coleaptera. Plate XXVL Fig. 9, 10- d« e'".

S. Adnate (Adnattv). When they adhere to the lower
lip through their whole length, Ex. Trichqptera.
Plate VII. Pig. 1. d'.

4!. Adherent {Adhcerentes). When they adhere to it
only at their "base. Ex. Coleopteroj Hymenoptera^
&c. Plate VI, VJL Fig. 3. d'.

5. Spinose {Spinosa). When they are armed at the

apex with spines, Ex. Libellulina. Plate VI.
Fig. 12. T'.

6. Dentate {Dentatce), When they are armed with
. teeth. Ex. Melolonthidce. Plate XXVI. Fig.

15. g''.

7. Pectunculate {Pecturuadata:). When the stipes

below the feeler has a row of minute spines set
like the teeth of a cpmb. Ex. Apis^»

8. Disengaged {Jjiberue), When they do not adhere

to it at dl, or are only connected by membrane or
ligaments. Ex. Apis^ &c. Plate VII. Fig. 3. d'.

9. Mandibuliform {Mandibuliformes\ When they

are hard and homy and shaped like the uppser
jaws. Ex. MelolonthidcBy Anopolognathidce, &c.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 13, 15.
10. Unguiculate {VngtdcuUUce). When they termi-
nate la a moveable claw. Ex. Cicindelop

d» FEELERS {iPalpi\
1. MAKiFORiyi (Maniformes). When they are chelate

* Jiiwi. 4p. Angh i. U xii. **. e. 1. neut.f. 6. r. and t, x. •*, d, 1.
fig. 1. c.

ORISMOLOGY. 311

or furnished with a finger and thumb. Ex. Scor--
piOf Chelifer. Pirate XV. Fig. 7.

2. Pediform {Pediformes). When they resemble the

legs either in structure or use. Ex. Araneidis^
Acaridcs. Plate VII. Fig. 10. h".

3. Antenniform {Antennifbrmes). When they are

very long resembling antenna. Ex. Hydrophilus^
Bryaxis^ Ctdex^*

m

4. Unguiculate ( 17ngftticKfo/2). When they are armed

with a ckw at the end. Ex. Gonyleptes K. Plate
XIII. Fig. 1.

5. Securiform {Securiformes). When the last joint of

the feeler is triangular, and the preceding joint is
connected with the vertex eS the triangle. Ex.
Ckfida. Plate XIII. Fig. 2. a.
6* LuNULATS {Lumdati)* When the last joint is
shaped like a half moon or crescent Ex. Oay-
poms. Plate XIII. Fig. 4. a.

7. Fasciculate (Fasciculati)* When the feeler ter-

minates in a bunch of veiy slender lamine. Ex.
Lyrneayionjlavipes. Plate XXVI. Fig. 9.

8. Lamellate {Lamellati). When the last joint is

divided into transverse lamells^ Ex. Atractocerus.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 1.

9. Inflated {Inflati). When the last joint of the

feeler is verv lars^e and tumid. Ex. AraneidceS.
Plate XIII. Fig. 8.

10. Appendiculate (Appendiculati). When fix>m one

of the joints there issues an accessory joint or ap-
pendage. Ex. Atractocerus^ Trombidiuau Plate
XXVI. Fig. I. a. Plate XXIII. Fig. IS. a.

11. Mammillate {MammiUati). When the last joint

312 ORISMOLOGY.

is very short, smaller than the preceding one, and
retractile within it. Ex. Paderus^.

12. SvbvIjKi:^ {Subulati). When the last joint is short,
^ and vastly smaller than the preceding one. Ex.

Bembidium, AleocJiara. Plate XXVI. Fia. 7.

13. YvHivoBM{Fusifor7ne$)* When the two last joints are

conical, and the base of the cones forms the point
of union. Ex. Trechtis. Plate XXVI. Fig. 8.

14. Heteromorphous (jFfe^^cwworpAi). When the two

intermediate joints are vastly larger than the first
and the last Ex. CerocomaS. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 2.

e. tongue {Lingua).

1. Linguiform {Linguifarmis). When the tongue is

quite distinct from the labium, usually retracted
within the mouth, short and shaped something
like a vertebrate tongue. Ex. Gryllus L. lAbeUu-
lina. Plate VI. Fig. 6, 12. e'.

2. LiGULiFORM {Liguliformis). When it emerges

from the labium, is short, fiat, and not concealed
within the mouth. Ex. Vespa and many Hymen<h
ptera. Plate VII. Fig. 2. e'.

3. TuBULOSE ( Tubulosa), When it emerges from the

labium, is long and tubular, and capable of infia-
, tion. Ex. Apis. Plate VII. Fig. 3. e.

4. Setiform {Setiformis). A short minute sharp tongue

discoverable between the scalpeUa of a promuscis.
Ex. Cimex L. Plate VII. Fig. 14. e'.

5. Palatiform {Palatiformis). Wlieri the tongue

forms the inner surface of ih^ Lahiumy but is not
separate from it. Ex. Most Coleoptaa.

• Oliv. Ins. N°. 44. Paderus. t i. /. 1. e.

ORISMOLOGY. 31 S

vu NOSE {Nasus).

1. Included (Incltisus). When the nose is included

between the two sides of the Postnasus which run
towards the upper lip. Ex. Cimex L.

2. Vaulted {Fomicaius\ When the nose is elevated,

convex and hollow underneath. Ex. Vespa.

vii. CANTHUS. ,y

1. Entering [Intrans). When the CatUhus takes a

little angle or sinus out of the eye. Ex. Cerant"
hyx L. Mylahrh F. Plate VI. Fig. 1. h'.

2. Cleaving {Findens). When the Canthus cleaves the

eye half through or more. Ex. The Lamellicoms.

3. Dividing {Dividem). When the Canthus passes

right through the eye and divides it into two.
Ex. Gyrinus. Tetraopes Dalm. * Plate XXVI.
Fig. 36.

4. Septifohm (Septiformis). WhentheCawMw^formsan

elevated ridge or septum, Ex. Many Lamellicoms.

viii. EYES {Ocuu),

*

1. Simple {SimpUces). Eyes which do not consist of
an aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. Araneidis.
Scorpio^ Phalangium. Plate VIL Fig. 9. h.

a. Scattered (Sparsi), When simple eyes are sepa-

rate from each other and not arranged in a certain
order. Ex. Eyes of Caterpillars and some Scolo^
pendrte*

b. Ordinate (Ordinati), When simple eyes are ar-

ranged in a certain order. Ex. Araneidne. Plate
XXVL Fig. 37.

■ Germ. Insect, Spec, 486—.

Sli OBISMOLOGY.

c. Conglomerate {Conglomerati). When a number

of simple eyes are collected together so as to exhi-
bit the appearance of a compound one. Ex. lalus.
Plate XIII. Fig. 11.

d. Dorsal {Darsales). When they are placed on the

back. Ex. Pkalangium. Plate XXVI. Fio. 43. h-

2. Compound {Compositi). Eyes which consist of an
aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. All the WiTtged
Orders. Plate XIII. Fig. 10. and XXVI. Fig.
38—42 h.

a. Sessile (Sessiles). Eyes that do not sit upon a
footstalk. Ex. Most insects. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 40, 41.

«. Superior {Si^eriores). When they are placed in
the upper part of the head. Ex. LibeUiditia.

p. Lateral {Laterals). Wlien they are placed in
the side of the head. Ex. Apis h,

f. Inferior {Inferiores). When they are placed in
the l^axr side of the head. Ex. The lower pair in
Gyrinus.

8. VosTaBJOYi, {Posteriores). When placed in the jws-

terior part of the head. Ex. JLocusta Leach.
& Anterior {Anteriores). When placed in the ante-
rior part of the head. Ex. Crabro F. Stapht/limu
■<Aens, &c.

^. Medial <^Medii). When placed in themiddle part
of the head. Ex. Harpalus, &c,

.«, Belting {CtT^entes). When the eyes nearly meet
both above and below the head, so as to form a
kind of belt roimd it. Ex. Ctdex pipiens, Calan-
dra Palmarttm.
Immersed (Immersi). When they are quite im-
bedded in the head. Ex. Tenebrio L.

OBISMOLOGY* SI 5

I. Prominent {Praminuli). When they stand out
from the head. Ex. Cicindela.

b. Columnar (Columnares). When they sit upon a

short footstalk or pillar. Ex. Strepsiptera K.
Ephemeras* Plate XXVI. Fig. 38, 99. h.

c. Pedunculate {Peduncutati). When they sit upon

a lor^ footstalk which also bears the antennae.
Ex. Diopsis. Plate XIII. Fig. 9.

d. Operculats {Operctdati). When the eyes are co-

vered by ai\ operculum* Ex. Noctua conspzctl"
laris*.

e. CiLiATE {CilicUi). When the margin of the socket

of the eye is fringed with hairs, so as to resemble
an eyelash. Ex. Apion vemale and Malvarum.

ix. STEMMATA.

1. Vertical (Verticalia). When they are placed in

the Vertex. Ex. Beduvius personatus* Plate
XXVI. Fig. 40. i.

2. Frontal {Frontalia). When placed in the From.

Ex. Hymenoptera. Plate VII. Fig« 2. i,
S« Intraocular {Iniraoadaria). When placed in tlie
space between the eyes. Ex. Cercopis^ Ledra^ &c.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 42. L

4. SuBOcuLAR {Subocularia). When placed in the

space beUm the eyes. Ex. FuJgora Latemaria.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 41. i.

5. Spurious {Spuria). A flat subdiaphanous space

above the base of the antennae, which seems to re-
present them. Ex. BlattOj Acheta F.

* Fn. Suec, 1183. Fabricius has not admitted this moth among
his NbcltuB, I know not why.

316 ORISMOLOGY.

X. ANTENNA.

a. NUMBER.

1 . DiCEROUs ( Dicera). Insects that have two antennae.

Ex. Insects in general.

2. AcEROUs {Acera). Insects that have no antennae.

Ex. AcaruSj &c.

b. SITUATION.

1. Preocular {Prceoctdares). When antennas are

inserted before the eyes. Ex. Chrysis.

2. Interocular {Interoadares). When mserted any

where between the eyes. Ex. Lepturuy Haliplus.
8. Inocular {Inoculares). When inserted in the Can-
thus of the eyes. Ex. Cerawhyx L.

4. Subocular {Suboctdares). When inserted under

the eyes. Ex. Fulgora, Nepa. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 41 • k.

5. Extraocular {Extraoadares). When inserted

"without the eyes. Ex. Notonecta, Delphax.

6. Rostral {Rostrales), When seated on a rostrum.

Ex. Curculio L.

7. Superior {Superiores). When inserted in tlie upper

surface of the head. Ex. Most insects.

8. Inferior (Inferiores). When inserted under the

head. Ex. Copris, &c.

c. approximation.

1. Distant (Distantes). When remote at their base.

Ex. Buprestis rustica.

2. Approximate {Approximate). When they flp-

proach each other at their base. Ex.' Donacia^
Galeriica.

ORI8MOLOGY. 317

3. Contiguous (Contigua). When they nearly or

altogether touch each other at their base. Ex,
Imatidium MacLeayanum.

4. Connate {Connatce). When united at their base.

Ex. Ceria. Plate XII. Fig. 13.

d. PROPORTION.

1. Very Short {Brevissima). When shorter than

the head. Ex. Musca L.

2. Short (J5r^t;^5). When as long as the head. Ex.

Hister.

3. Shorter {Breviores). When longer than the head

and shorter than the body. Ex. Dytiscus.

4. Mediocral {Mediocres). When of the length of the

body. Ex. Callidium violaceum.

5. Longer {Longiores). When longer than the body.

Ex. Lamia Sutor.

6. Very Long {Longissimce). When much longer

than the body. Ex. Lamia cedilis.

e. direction.

1. Entire {Integra:), When they have no elbow or

angle. Ex. Antenna of most Coleaptera.

2. Broken [Fractce). When the Clavola forms an

angle with the Scapm. Ex. Curadio^ Apis^ &c.
Plate XXV. Fig. 15.

3. Geniculate {Geniculate). WTien they form an

elbow in the middle but not with the Scajms. Ex.
Meloe. Plate XII. Fig. 7.

4. Straight {Recta). When they are without any

angle, convolution, or curvature. Plate XI.
Fig. 5.

5. PoRRECT {Porrecta). When they are placed paral-

SI 8 ORiaMOLOGY.

lei with each other, and in the same line with the

body; Ex. Trichoptera in Qif^sd^
6. ExcuRvsi>(JSiEnimr). When they corvc i^utwards*
7* Incurved {Incmrvai). When diey curve inwards*

8, Decurved {Decurva)* When they curve down-

wards.

9. Recurved {Recurvce). When they curve upwards.

10. Reflexed {Reflexai). When they are bent back

over the body.

11. Deflexed {Deflexa). When they are bent down-

wards.

12. Convolute {ConvoltUce). When they roll inwards.

Plate XII. Fig. 6.

13. Revolute {Revolutce). When they roll outwards.

14. Spiral {Spirales). When.they are convoluted spi-

rally. Plate XXV. Fig. 81.

15. Rigid (RigidUe). When they are very stiff and in-

flexible. Ex. Libettulina, Ftdgara. Plate XII.
Fig. 12, 15.

f. REPOSITION.

1. Hidden (Becept^^). Antennae which when the ani-

mal reposes^ are hidden under the head or trunk.
Ex* The LameUicoms. Elater. Belosioma.

2. Exposed {Aperta), Anteniue which when the ani-

mal rqiosea are not concealed. Ex. Cet^ambjfx L.

g. FIGURE and SIZE.

1. Setaceous {SeUaeea). Long flexile antennae which

taper somewhat from the base to the apex. Plate
XI. Fig. 1.

2. Setiform {Setybrmes). Short rigid antennas which

ORISMOLOOY. SI 9

tap^ from the base to the apex like a bristle.
Plate XII. Fig. 14—16.

3. Capillary ( Capillares). Antennas nearly as slender

as a hair. Plat£ XI. Fig.^ 2.

4. FiLiroRM {Filiformes). Antennae every where of an

equal thickness. Plate XI. Fig. 3.

5. Thick f^Crassa). Antennas disproportioBably thick*

Plate XII. Fig. 29.
6* Incbassate {Incna&iffa). Antennae disproportion-

ably tfakk m any part : at the base^ middle^ or apex.

Plate XXV. Fig. 34, 19, 7.
a» Gradually Ijuczassate {Sensim Incrassaia). When

they grow gradually thicker from the base to the

apex. Plate XXV. Fig. 10.
b. Suddenly Incrassate {Subito Incrassatis). When

they grow suddenly thicker in any part Plate

XXV. Fig. 18, 19, 24.

7. Broad {Latis)* Antennas disproportionably wide^

Plate XXV. Fig. 24.

8. Dilated (Dilataia)* When they are dispropor-

tionably wide in any part; basCf middle, or apex,
Plate XXV. Fig. 12. Piatb XIL Fig. 1, 20.

9. Slender {Tenues)* When they are disproportion-

ably slender. Plate XI. Fig. 2.
10. Attenuate (Atteimaia). Antainas disprc^rtion-
ably slender in any part; base, midMe, or apex.
Plate XXV. Fig. 8, 21, S4.

a. Gradually Attenuate (&»sw»-4jtf^»ttfltftr). When

they grow gradually more slender from the basa
to the apex. Plate XI. Fig^ 7.

b. Suddenly Attenuate (&ii«^o j&^entM^^). Whai

S20 ORISMOLOGY.

they grow suddenly slender in any part. Plate
XII. Fig, 1, Plate XXV, Fig. 18, 34,

11. Fusiform (i^{^)r7n^5). Antennae thickest in the

middle and tapering more or less towards each,
extremity. Plate XI. Fig. 5. Plate XXV.
Fig. 8.

12. Prismatic {Prismaticales). Antennae with three

nearly equal sides. Plate XL Fig. 6.
IS. Ensiform {Ensiformes). Antennae compressed and
three-sided, with one side much narrower than
either of the others, Plate XL Fig, 7.

14. Falciform (Falcifbrmes). When the Clavola of the

Antenna grows gradually narrower towards the
apex, and is arcuate or incurved so as to resem-
ble a sickle. Plate XL Fig. 8.

15. Nodose {Nodosa). When antennae have one, two,

or more joints larger than those which precede or
follow them. Plate XIL Fig. 5.

16. Moniliform {Moniliformes). Antennae consisting

of oval or globular joints so as to resemble a neck-
lace of beads. Plate XL Fig, 9.

17. Dentate {Dentatce), Toothed with teeth whose

sides are equal, Plate XL Fig. 10.

1 8. Serrate {Serratai). Toothed with teeth whose sides

are unequal like those of a saw; Plate XL Fig.
11. Plate XXV. Fig. 8.

19. Biserrate {Biserratai). So toothed on each side.

Plate XXV. Fig. 18.
SO. Imbricate {Imbrtcata). When the summit of each
joint is incumbent upon the base of that which
precedes it Plate XL Fig. 12.

ORISMOLOGY. 321

21. Distichous {Disticha). When the joints in ge-

neral terminate m Bi,fork. Plate XL Fig. IS.

22. CiRRA.T£ {CirraUe). When the joints terminate in

a pair of curling hairy branches resembling ten^'
drik. Plate XXV. Fig. 4.

23. Flabellate (Flabellata). When the antennae on

one side send forth from the joints, except those
at the base, long flat flexile branches, which open
and shut like the sticks of a Jan. Plate XI.
Fig. 17.

24. Biflabellate {BifiabeUata). When they are fla-

bellate on both side& Plate XXV. Fig. 11.

25. Pectinate {Pectinatie), Antennae furnished on one

side with a number of parallel stiff* branches, re-
sembling somewhat the teeth of a comb* Plate
XXV. Fig. 25. Plate XL Fig. 14.
26* Bipectinate {Bipectinata). Pectinate on both
sides. Plate XXV. Fig. 22.

27. Duflicato-pectinate {Duplicato^ctinatai). Bi-

pectinate with the branches on each side alternately
long and short Plate XL Fig. 15.

28. Ramose (lUmosai). Antennae furnished on one

side with two or three irregular longish branches.
Plate XL Fig. 18.

29. Furcate {FuraiUe)* Antennae divided at the end

into two prongs or branches. Plate XL Fig. ID-
Plate V. F|G. S.

SO. Bipartite {Bipartita). When they are divided to
the base into two nearly equal branches. Plate
XXV. -Fig. 20.

31. Palmate {Palmat€e). Very short antennae which
send forth externally a few long finger-shaped

VOL. IV. Y

923 oniSMOLOOY.

braticlits, giving them some resemblance of a hand.
PiATE XL Fig. 24
dfl. IftREOuiiAR (irreguldres). When flie joii^ 6f the
antennae Tary so much in size and shape that they
cannot well be defined. Plate XI. Fig. 2S.

h. TERMINATION.
«. YBRSATILS ANTENNJB.

1* StTBVLATE {SulmUaa)i Wheh they terminailfe in a

minute joint, much slenderer than the! preceding

one^ Plate XIL Fig. 16.
2. S^TiGEROUs> (Setiger^). When they termiAafe in a

bristle Plata XII. FtG. 14, 15* Plat^XXV,

Fig. 29.
S. Ga^illacedus (CdpiUaeea). Wheri tliey temlinate

in a fine ti^illary jointi &LATi XII. Fig. 1.

4. Mi^cRONATiB (MiicronatiJe). When they terminate

in a short point or inucro. Plate XII. Fig. 2.

5. Uncinate (Uncituttdt). When thenr apex is in*-

curved so as tofofln a kind at hook. PlAti^ XIL
Fig. 3.

6. U*^ul(5tyLATB ( Unguiadatai). When they tenni-

nate in a hatd hority incurved sharp cUvoo resem-
bling those of the tarsi of insects. FlAte XXV.
Fig. 16. fl.

7. CLAVATte [Cltivaiai). When thdr apex grows gra-

dually thicker. Plate XII. Fm. 4. Plate ^XV.
*^G. r, 14-

6. Capitate (Capitata). When they terminate sud-
denly in a larger knob of one or more joints.
Plate XII. Fig. 8—10, and XXV. 1— S, 5, 6.

a. FisfiriLE Knob (Captttdum Jlssile). When it is di-

omSMOLOGT. 3^3

ridtd into s&ifer&i tdmii^ irliicH th& \A^/m. -cafi
open and shut . Plate %XV. Fig. 1-^d, 5.
d. TtrmcATE Kno^ {CapiiulUm mHc&fum). Wiien
the laminas, at least cm one sid^ a|]|)«^ t6 iiloscu-
late or to be imbedded in ^lich other. PLAtM ]9tlL
Fig. ri. Plate XXV. Fig. 5, 6.

c. Perfoliate Knob {CapitiiUM jperfdidtUm), tVhen

the joints of the knob lire ooMnect^d by d pedicle,
which hiii^ thef ap^ieaaraiicd of pasiing thr^gh them.
Vi^mt XII. Fig. 10.

d. SdLiD KkoB (Capiiiitim solidum). When the knob

consists of a' single joint, or if of more, exhibits
very faint traces of th^if i^ej^ar&tion. Plate XII.
Fig; 9^ P1/Ate XXV. Fig. S3.

e. Inflated KiSob {Capittdum infUiULiri\ Whcfn the

knob is dispr^ortienably \&t%^ and Idoks lus if
bld^ biit PLiitE XII. Fig. »». PtAtft XXV.
FtG. 9i

E^r^ROUS (Seiigef-a), Antennae furnished with
a terminal bristle. Plate X!^II. Fig. 14 — 16, 21,
22. ipLATE XXV. t^IG. 29.
a. Globiferous {Globifera). 'Wnen the setigerous
joiiit is larger than the preceding one, and globose.

I^LAffe Xlt tlG. 12.

i. AngustatA (Angusiata). Wten the setigerous
joint IS rio£ conspicuously larger ttan the preced-
ing one. Plate Xll. Fig. l4, 15.

2. Aristate (Aristatte). Antennae terminated by a var-
nously shaped flat joint longer and usually larger
than t&e preceding one, laterally setigerous.
Plate XII. Fig. 21, 22.

Y 2

324* OAISMOLOUY.

a. Setabious (SetaruB). When the awn or bristle is

naked. Plate XII. Fig. 21. a.

b, Plumate (Plumatie). When the awn isjeathered.

Plate XII. Fig. 22. a.
3. FiLATB {Filatce). When inversatile antennae have
neither a terminal nor a lateral bristle. Plate
XII. Fig. 17—20.

0. Simple {Simplices). When the last joint is exarti"

culate. Plate XIL Fig. 17, 18, 20.
b. Compound {Compositaf). When the last joint is it-
self ohsxA^tAy jointed. Plate XIL Fig. 19. a.

i. PUBESCENCE.

1. Vebticillate {VerticiUata). Antennae beset with

hair in whorls. Plate XII. Fig. 27.

2. Plumose {Plumoste). Antennae feathered on all

sides with fine long hain Plate XIL Fig. 24.

3. CiLiATE (Ciliatce), Antennae fringed with parallel

hairs on each side. Plate XL Fig. 16.
4. . Fimbriate {Fimbriate). Antennae fringed with
parallel hairs on one side.

5. Babbate {Barbatce). Antennae hairy on one side.

Plate XIL Fig. 26.

6. Fasciculate (Fascicidatai). Antennae having seve-

ral bundles of hair. Plate XXV. Fig. 32.

7. ScopiFEROUS (&qpj/^r^p). When they are furnished

with one or more dense brushes of hair. Plate
XII. Fig. 25. a. Plate XXV. Fig. 17.

k. ARTICULATION.

1. ExARTicuLATE {Exatitculatai). Without visible ar-
ticulations.

ORISMOLOGY. 825

2. BiARTiCULATE {Btarticulota). Consisting of two

joints.

3. Triarticulate {Triarticulata). Consisting of

Mr^^ joints.

4. QuADRi ARTICULATE {Quadriarttctdatce). Consist-

ing of^^wr joints.

5. MuLTiARTicuLATE {Multtarttculata), Consisting

of marn/ joints.

1. JOINTS.

1. Camfa^xjlate {Campanulatce). Bell-shaped. When

the joints are obconical, with the vertex of the cone
rounded.

2. Pateriform {Pateriformes). When the joints

are somewhat dilated and very short, shaped some-
thing like a shallow bamL

3. Patellate (Patellata), When the whole jomt is

dilated and shaped something like a patella or
platter. Ex. Prosopis dilatata {Melitta *. b. K.)
Plate XXV. Fig. 12. a.

4<. LoBATE {Lohatai). When they are expanded at
the tip into a lobe. Ex. Belostoma, Cerocoma.
Plate XL Fig. 21, 22.

5. ToRULOSE {Torulosa). When they are a little tu-
mid.

m. APPENDAGES.

1. AuRicULATE {Auricidata)^ When they have an

ear-like process at their base. Ex. Gyrinus, Par-"
nus. Plate XII. Fig. 29. a. Plate XXV.
Fig. 28. a.

2. ABVV,^i}icvhATz{Appendiculata), When they have

one or pwo antennifo^ prqce/s^^s fit th^if ha»e,
Ex. Otiocerus K. Plate XXV. Fig. 2?. b.

III. TRUNK {Truncus).

1. MoNOMEROUS (Monomerus), When the trqnk has

no suture or segmient, f^x. Aranea L.

2. Dimerous [Dimerus). When die trunk consists of

Pwo greater segments. Ex. Coleoptera^ &c.

3. Trimerous ( Trimerus). When the trunk consists

of three greajter segments. Jlx, Neuroptera, &ۥ

4. IsTHMiATE {Istf^fniafus). "^Vhen an isthmus is formed

between the Prothorax and Elytra, either in con-
sequence of the former beipg constricted behind
^Q fis to form a neck, qr t\\e scutellum not being
interposed between the elytra at their base, or the
chief part of the n)esothQrs^^ npt being coverjjd by
the prothorax. Ex. Clp'USy Passalus, ajid Spori'^
dyli^.

i. MANITRUNK {Manitbuncus).

a. PROTH09AX.

1. Clypeiform (C^^j^mw/f). A^h^ii the prothorax

by it^ m^giiitud^ ^d distinct spparatipi^ fprn^s one
of the most conspicuous pieces of the upper side of
the trunk, so as nearly to represent the whole
thorax; the mesothorax ^id metathorax being
mostly hidden by the e.ly^9 find otji^^r^ opgotis for
flight. Ex. Cokaptera^ Qrthaptera^ &c, Plate
VIII. Fig. 1, 10.

2. CoLLiFORM {CoUiformis)^ When the prothorax is

short and narrow, and not iso compicuoiis 9& ihe

other pieces of thie trunk* Ek* lAbelbdina.
Plate IX. Fig. 6.

5. Cerviculate (Ceroieidaius\ Wheo the prothorax

is elongate, attenuate, and distinguished irom the
AiUepectus by no suture ; so as to form a distinct
and usually long ne<A» FtATE XII* Fio. 6*

4. Evanescent (Evane$ceh$). When no distinct pro-

.thonac is discoverable or it is only repiiesented by

membrane, Ex. Most Hynienopter€^ Dipfera, &c.

S^ Maboikate {Marginatu$)* When an impressed
line or dbannel separates the edge of the protho-
rax irom the jrest of its sinrfiice, and so forms a
margin* Ek* Harpalus Lair. &c

6. Immaboinaix {hnmarginaim). When it has no

fiueh margin* Ex. CurcuUo lu.
7* Explanate {Explanatui^ When its sides are so
^ .depresfied and dilated as to form a broad margin,
px. N£oropkorus. Silpha.
8. Emabginate {Emarginatus), When a segment of
« drde is taJo^n out of its anterior part for the re-
ception of the head.
9m AjtfBiENT {AmbieHsi). When this sinus b so large
as to receive the whole head. Ex* Odtocoms
Leadbi*
10« CiBOUMAMBiENT (CiVoiiBamk'^s^). When its sides
are elongated anteriorly and curve inwards, their
ends lapping over each other and the head, so as
to form a circle roimd the posterior part of the
latter, and leave a space open for the eyes to see
objects above them* Ex. Helceus.
11. CvrrRkrE {Clypeatus). When it quite covers and
overshadows the head. lEoi. JLMmpyris. Cassida.
Cossyphus.

328 ORISMOLOGY.

12. CucuLLATE (Cuadlattis). When it is elevated into

a kind of ventricose cowl or hood which receives
the head. Ex. Dingis cucuUatm* Plate XIIL
Fig* 18. a.

13. Alate {Alatus), When its sides are, expanded into

a kind of totngf. Ex. Tingis cucuHatus.

14. AuBicuLATE {Aurictdattis)* When it expands on

each side into two processes resembling ears. Ex.
Ledra aurita*

15. Angulate (Angidatus). When its sides or base

jut out into one or more i^^ngles. Ex. Capris.

16. Cruciate {Cruciatus). When it has two elevated

longitudinal obtusangular lines^ the angles of which
approach each other in its middle, so as nearly to
form a St Andrew's cross. Ex. Locusta Leadi,
Plate XIII. Fig. 17.

17. Obvolving (Obvolvens). When there are neither

ora nor suture to separate it from the antepectus,
Ex. Stenus, Curculio L.

18. PuLViNATE {Pulvinatus). When in consequence

of being depressed in one place, it seems to puff
out in another. Ex. Aleochara canalicuUUa^
pictuj &c.

19. Producted {Productus). When behind it termi-

nates in a long scutellifohn process which covers
the Mesothoraxy Metathorax^ and great part of the
Abdomen, Ex, Acrydium F. Centrotus.

b. antepectus.

1. Trachelate ( 2VaerA^fa^?w). When of itself it forms

a neck, the prothorax being represented only by
membrane. Ex. Xiphydria.

2. Unarmed (Inenne). Wh^i it has no prosternimu

Ex. Curctdio L*

3. A&MED {Armatum). When it has a prostemum.

N.B. These two last terms may be extended also to
the Medipectus and Postpectus. And dbo to the
whole together* Thus^ if there was no Sternum at
all, it should be called Pectus inerme ; and if one
exited in all these divisions of the breast, it would
j^^ Pectus armatum.

• ' #

c ARM {Brachium),

a, CUBIT {Cvjbitus).

J, Clypeate {Clypeatus), When a concavo-convex
plate is adixed to the outside of the cubit Ex. Cra"
hro clypeatus, scutatus, &c.<J. Plate XV. Fig.
3. a*

% Palmate {Palmatus)* When towards the apex the
cubit is armed laterally with several divaricate
spiniform teeth. Ex. Scarites, Clivina. Plate
XV. Fig. 5.

3. Digitate {Digitatus), When the apex of the cu-

bit is divided into several long teeth or fingers.
Ex. GryUotalpa, Plate XV. Fig. 6.

4. DoLABRATE (Dolabratus), When the apex of the

cubit is dilated and shaped something like the
head of a hatchet Plate XV. Fig. 4.

/3. HAND {Mantu),
1. Patellate (Pa^rf/a/a). Whenseveral joints of the
hand are dilated so as to form an orbicular patella
fiimished underneath either with suckers^ or a
dense brush of hairs. Ex. Dytiscus S • Staphyli"
nus. Plate XV. Fig. 9.

8S0 aUJSJAQUH^^

Q. ScuTAOTB (Sctdata). Wh«Q a single joint of the
hand is dilated into a broad scutiform plate. Ex*
Ifydrpphibis piceua ^ • Fx^t£ XV. Eia. 8.

8* Stri oiLAT£ (Sfrigilata). When nn the inner side
of the first joint of the hand or palm the segment
«f a circle is taken put at the^base opposite to the
^ur, the sinus being often pectinated with spines.
Ex. ApisK Pj-ATE XXVII. Fig. $6. a.

4. AuRicuLATE (Aurictdata), When any of the joints
are externally dilated into an auriform process.
Ex. GryUotalpa. Plate XV. Fig. 6. lIK

u. ALITRUNK {AuTBUifcu^,

1. BuiiiEp {Septdtus), VlHien its upper siirface is wholly

or nearly covered and hidden by the thorax, elytra
or other organs of flight**. Ex. CoUoptera, Ortho-
ptera.

2. Revealed {Revelatus)* Wb^ it is not so covered,

but is equally conspicuous with the Prothorax^ or
even more so. ' Ex. Neuroptera^ Ht/menopteraf
Diptera. A^actQcerus in Coleoptera.

3. Coalite {Coalitu$). When it is not separable into

two segments, the Medipectus and the Postpectus
forming one piece. Ex. Cimea: L.
4r. Bisected (Bisectus). When it is separable into
two seginQpits. Ex* LameUicofTi beetles.

a. MESOTHORAX.
«, oqi^IJIlr (Colhre),

). yKCOVEBiED {Apertum). When it is not concealed

^ Momngr* Ap* AngL u 97* t, ^ Apitt, **. e. 1. Neut./. ^1. d.

^ This ierm may be applied jto the M^sothorax in heteropterous
Hemiptera^ in which that part lies buried under the Prothorax,
Plate VIII. Fig. 20. i, *.

by |he ihield of the protbar^^ Sx^ Hymeno^
ptera.

%. CovBBEo ( TeKr^ttV Wh«ii it is qwt0 pppisK^ed by

the prothorax.

3. Ar^ate (Jreatum). When it if ^ti^r tbap the

prothoraxi mid jfeenninstes toward? the ivings in
two oblique areas, inclosed by a lidg^ <l^^ crown-
jed anteriorly with Uttle tettth* E^. LiMMina*
F!u.T£ IX. Fi»* 7. g*t fk* N3. Tfc? jjpa^ between
these areas isjUtedwith a membrane mpfAie of tefi"

sim and rctamtiorh mhwi in flight mM^9 ti^m to
appTQiuAtp qnd fweAffoom mck othfr.

4. Amplec^esvt {Ampledem)* When pqsteri^ly it is

fo ciuTed as to lofm a large si^ii^ "virhi^b ^mbn^es
the DorsoUm. Ex. r<?^a L< Pl#4TO IX. Fig.

5. Phonetic {Phorniiaum)* Wbw to p<^^or an-

gles, approaching the wings, cover the i>Qo§(i spira-
cles*. Ex. l^fmencptera,

fi. DORBOLUM.

1. TnoRAciroKM {TAoraciforme). When it forms the
principal part of the upper surface of the trunk.
Ex. Bombm, Apis^ Vespa L., &c. Plate IX.
Fig. 11. r.

y. SCUTJ^fXUM.

1. DiOTitKOT {DUtinptms!)^ Wb« it i» sep^ratfyl from

the dorsoliim by a suture. Ex. Hym^riaptera,
Diptera. Plate IX. Fig. il, }9, |c^. V*

2. CpALiTE {Coalittm)* Whep it is not separated

* Chabiier S^r U Vol deg In^ckt, 4^#m. d^ ^ut, L vii]. 55.

iSi ORISMOLOOY.

from the Dorsolum by a suture. Ex* Coleopfera^

&c. Plate VIII. Fig. 3. A'.
;S. ScvfTEiA.ATi&,{Insectum scuteUatum). An insect hav-
ing a visible Scutellum. Ex. Melolontha,
• a. Rejected {Hejectum). When, though visible^ it

does not intervene between the elytra at their base.

Ex. Passalus.
b. Received (Receptum). When it intervenes hetween

the elytra at their base. Ex. Most scutellate Co-

leaptera.

4. ExscuTELLATE {Ifisectiim exscuteUatum). When an

insect has no visible scutellum, it being wholly co-
vered by the Ptothorax. Ex. Ccpris.

5. Ascending (Ascendens) When it curves upwards

from the dorsolum. Ex. Sagra.

6. Tabular {Tabulare). When it is elevated on a

footstalk above the dorsolum, and forms a tabular
or flat surface. Ex. Elater.

7. Obumbrant {Obund>rans}. When it overhangs the

metathorax. Ex. Mtisca. Plate IX. Fig. 19. kf.

I, BASE-COVERS (TVgtf&p).

1. CoNCHiFORM (Conckiformes)^ When they are a se-

micircular concavo-convex scale something resem-
bling the valve of a bivalve shell. Ex. HymenO'
ptera. Plate IX. Fig. 11, 12. g".

2. Laciniform {Laciniformes). When they are long,

of an irregular shape, and appear like lappets on

each side of the trunk. Ex. Lithosia^ &c. Plate

IX. Fig. 5.*

«

* In many moths, particularly ArcUa octtlaria, and affinities, the

insect looks as if its neck was ornamented with a beautiftil Hppet

formed by the Patagia, and its shoulders by these lappets.

ORISMOLOGY* 3^3

• t. ELYTEA. >

~1. Base {Basis), The part next the Prothorax.
2* Apex (Apea:). The part next the Anus*

3. HuMEBAL Angle {Angulus Humeralis)* The ^x/^-

rior basal angle.

4. ScUTELLAR Angle {Afigulus ScuieUoris). The in-

terior basal angle*

5. CouBOFTRA {Ccleoptra). The two elytra spdcoi cS

together.

6. Spinigerous {Spin^era). When the CoUoptra

have a spine common to them both. Ex. Cassida
bidens.

7. AuRicuLATE {Auriculaia). When the Eijftrd have

an elongate process at the shoulders. Ex. Cassida
bicomis, Taurus^ Sec

8. Entire {Integra). When they have neither abbre*

viations nor incisions.
9* Fastiqiate {Fastigiata). When of equal or greater
length than the abdomen, and transverse at the end.

10. Truncate {Truncata), When they are shorter

than the abdomen and transverse at the end.

11. Abbreviate {Abbreviata). When they are shorter

than the abdomen, but cover more than half its
length. Plate I. Fig. 4.

12. Dimidiate {Dimidiata). When they are about

half the length of the abdomen. Plate I. Fig. 5.

13. Very Short {Brevissima). When they are not

half the length of the abdomen. Plate I. Fig.
2, 3, 7.
14* Mutilate {Mutilata), When they appear unna-'
turaUy short or curtailed as if mutilated. Ex.
Acrydium F.

SS4 ORK8)a6L6€^1f.

15. Subulate {Stibulata). Whdn they are attenuated

towardd th* diid. £t£. Stidfii kutkeif/dk; LufitC

1 6. Elongate (EUm^itm)* Wb«d they ^ieM l^fonA

the aniu^ Est* jThu^.

17. Obvolving (06t?o/i;^n//a). Wi^ iHeht Eptpleur€e

iaver a cohsidei'abte ptKttic^ af fli^ s^idm 6( th^

alitrunk. Plate XXVIIL F^tt. 7.
18i C6mnAQk^t {CmplicarUid). Wlit^n tbcf;^ lie^ Ihtle

over each other. Ex. Meloe. Plat£ L F:^6. 6.
It. De'ieRscekt (Iiehisceniia)4 Wlieii tt^y dif^tge d

tiilW dt the ftt^e^. Ek. P^otMMi

20. Ampliate {Ampltata). When they are dispif'opor- '

tiohsSily ii^id«i at the end. £k« lA/ctis JHs(fi(Uu^.
FiATft XIIL Fig. 26.

21. Plicate [PliccUa). Wheii they have tWac^ three

ODiiti^adfii^ abbtjg^lat^ furrows whidh cbffiiMt the
appearance of folds. Ex. PsetdphidiS.

22. Pbrto^ate {P&tf^ata)i When a liiflir bote ap^

peiurs AriBed tkrotfgb thetti^. Ek. CasiidA perfo-

N.B. MtDm/ €f the ab&oi terms wiU dpply M T^mina,
HeinelylTa» Wings, ftc.

A • Side-covers {JSjnpleuriB).

1. Marginal {Marginales). When they are only^an

inf!e:^ed cohtlnuatio^ of the margin. tlx. Bu^
preHis*

2. rhscoiDAL {Discoidales). When they are a pro-

cess from the disk of the under surface of the ely-
tra. Ex. Lampyrisy Cossyphm^ Cassida, Notoclea\

* Neither CArtftomela nor Imatidium have a discoldal Efipieura;
wbich furnishes a further proof that Notodea is distinct from CAry-
somela, tuid Imatidium from Cauida.

ORISMOlOdT. ' SS5

^ TEGMINA.

1. FiixfEainltmiLk (FeTiesltella). A transpilreiit eje-like

spot in the Anal Area of the Tegraina of Acrida
K.SK

2. CovvotrE^VT (Convclventid). Yfhttnihe Anal Area

is borisontal^ mcambent on the bock of the insect,
and forms a right angle wkb die rest of the tegmen,
t^ich IS vertical and covers the sides. Ex* Lo^
tkUa Leach. N.B. In this case the KtnA Area of
one Tegmen cavers thai of the other,
S. Aliform {Aliformia). When their substance ap-
proaches to membrane and they nearly resonble
Wings. Ex. Most Hotnopterous Hemiptera.

m, HEMELYTBA;

1. Obtected {Obtecta), When the Hemelytra are

covered by a scutelliform mesothorax. Ex. &u-
iellera^

2. Detected {Detecta\ When they are not so co-

vered; £x. Most Heteropterous Hemipteru.

0, WINGS (Ala),
A, DenoRimationr.

1. AsTERioR {Antica), The fore or upper wings.

a. StmRioB {Superiffres). The anterior wings ate s&
denominated if wheh at rest thc^ are placed upon
the posterior wings. Ex. Hymenoptera.

A* I^SUMART {Pfimores). The anterior wings ard so

* For the i^mob of tfai» dfange oi the name of Loemta ¥.p tee
jiool, Jmun, N^ iv«

An Acrida with this spot is figured hy f^ofesser Lichtenstein.
TVans. iv. /. v. A.

336 ORISMOI.OGT.

denominated if when at rest they are not placed
upon the posterior. Ex. Lepidoptera diuma,
LibeUtdina.

2. Posterior (Posticce). The hind or lower wings.

a. Inferior {Inferiores). The posterior wings are so

denominated if the anterior wings, when at rest,
are placed upon them.

b. Secondary (Secundaria). The posterior wings are

so denominated if the superior wings, when at rest,
are not placed upon them.

B, Magnitude.

3. Equal {jSEquales). When the four wings are of

espial length. Ex. LiheUtdina.

4. Unequal {Inceqtmles). When they are tio^ of equal

Jength. Ex. Hymenoptera.

C. Complication.

5. Plane {Plana). Flat wings, that are neither plica-

tile nor tumid. Ex. Apis.

6. Tumid {Tumida). When the membrane between

the nervures that form an areolet is bigger than
the areolet, which gives it convexity. Ex. Ten^
thredo L. N. B. The object of this structure is to
expose a larger surface to the action of the air*

7. Plicatile (Plicatiles). When the wings at rest are

folded in one or more longitudinal plaits. Ex.
Vespa L.

8. DuPLiCATiLE {Duplicata). When they are £>lded

transversely. Ex. Coleoptera.

9. Convolute {Convoluta). When the wings so en-

velope the body as to give it a cylindrical form.
Ex. Crambus.

OHtSMOLOGY. SS?

10. Incumbent {Incumbentes). Wings which when at
rest cover the back of the insect Ex. Nochuu
Gcotnetra*

11* Cruciato-complicate {Cructato^omplicata).

Wings crossed and folded. Cx. Pentatoma^ &c«

12. Cruciato-incumbent {Ct-uciato-inctmbentes).
Wings crossed but not folded, and covering the
back. Ex. Apis.

IS. Extended {Extensce). Wings that when at rest do
not lie upon the body. Ex« Libelltda^ JEshna^ &c.
a. Expanded (Patentes), Wings that when at rest are
horizontally extended and do not cover each other.
Ex. Libellula, &e.
A. Horizontal {HoHzontales). Very narrow wings
which when at rest are extended horizontally form-
ing a right angle with the body, and covering the
posterior wings. Ex. Pterodactylm^,
ۥ Erect {Erect<z\ Wings which when at rest are

extended vertically* Ex. Fanessa. Agrion.
cU Erecto-patent {Erecto^patentes), When the pri-
mary wings at rest are erect and the secondary
horizontal. Ex. Hesperia.

e. Connivent {Canniventes). When erect wings are

* so closely applied to each other that the corre-
sponding margins touch. Ex. Fanessa.

f. Divaricate {Divaricata). When wings at rest are

somewhat erect but diverge from each other.

14. Patulous (Patuke). When wings at rest partly

cover each other.

15. Applicant {Applicantes). When wings at rest are

parallel with the abdomen. EIx. Tipula.

• Reaum i. t. xx./. 12—15.

VOL. IV. Z

388 OllISMOLO»Y«

16. Divergent (Divergentes). When wings at rest

cede from the abdomen*

17. Deflexed {Deflexdd). When wings .at rest cover-

ing each other are so bent downwards as to imi-
tate .a roof, of which their interior margin forms
the ridge. Ex. Homopterous Hemiptera,

18. Reversed {Reverses). When wings at rest are de-

flexed, but so that the anterior margin of the infe-
rior project$ beyond the anterior margin of the
superior. Ex. Gatrophaca quercifolia. Plate
XIV. Fig. 2.

19. Broad {Latce). When the interior margin is shorter

than the posterior. Ex. Papilio.

20. Narrow {Angustce). When the posterior margin

is shorter than the interior. Ex. Heliconius.

D, Shape.

1. Falcate [Falcafce), Wings having their posterior

margin concave, and the posterior angle acute and
curved. Ex. Atfacus Atlas. Plate XIV. Fig. 4.

2. Digitate {Digitate). Wings cleft to the base into

several subdivisions. Ex. Pteiodactylus. Plate
XIV. Fig. 3.
a. Radius {Radius). A single subdivision of a digitate
wing.

3. Caudate [Caudatce). When wings terminate in a

tail-like process. Ex. Papilio Machaon. Plate
XIV. Fig. 1.5.
a. Bj CAUDATE [Bicaudata:). Having two such tails.
Tricaudatce^ having three^ &c. /

E, Surface.
1. SgUAMATE {Squamatce). Wings covered with mi-

ORTSMOLOOr. S39

nute scales. Ex. Lepidoptei^a. PlatK XXII.
Fig. 16. a, A, c, rf, &c.

2. Denudate {Denudatde). When the wings of i>-
pidoptera appear more or less as if the scales had
been rubbed ofi^ either partially or generally, Ex.
Heliconius, Sesia, ^g^ena, Nudat-ia,

S. Fenestrate {Fenestrata:). When one or two de-
finite spaces in a L^idopterous wing are denuded
of scales. Ex. Attacus Atlas, &c.

4. Babe {Nud(e). When wings have neither percep-
tibie hairs nor scales. Ex. Coleopiera,

F, Margin.

1. Anterior or Exterior {Anterior or Exterich-^).

The outer margin of the wing, or that^owi the
body. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. a.

2. Interior (/n^mor). The m»er margin of the wing,

or that next the body. Plate XIV. Fig% 1. b.^

3. PosTtoiOR {Posterior). The tenhinal margin of

the wing, or apex. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. c.

4. Plectrum (jPfec^rM/w). A marginal bristle stronger

than the rest, observable about the middle of die
costa and standing out froim it. Ex. Many Mus-
cid^e,

» ,

6r. Angles.

1. Humeral {Humeralis). Basal angle next the heacL

Plate XIV. Fig. 1. d.
^. Scutellar {Scutellaris), Basal angle next the 5cw-

tellum or its region. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. e.
3. Posterior (P(05/mor.). Ot^^r apical angle. Plate

XIV. Fig. 1. f.

z 2

fiO: pRISMOLOGY*.

4. ANAii {Analis). Inner apical angle. Plate XIV.
Fm. 1. g.

H, Ncrvures-

1. Nehvulet {Nervulus). A little nervure diverging

obliquely from the costal into the disk of the wing
towards the apex.

a. SiMPlE (Simplea:). When the nervulet does not

terminate in a round punctum. Ex. Eulopktis

Geofir.

b. Coronate (Caronatum). When it terminates in^a

round punctum. Ex. Ichneumon penetrans K.*

2. Neurose (Neurosa). Wings that have nervures

besides the marginal ones.
5. AvEUROSE (Aneurosa). Wings that have no ner-
vures besides the marginal ones. Ex. Psilus,

4. CiRCUMSEPTED (Ctrcumseptce), Wings whose mar-

gin is every where strengthened by a nervure.
Ex, Tabanus.x

5. Varicose (Varicosie). When the nervuves are d&s-

proportionably swelled in any part. Ex. For/l^
ctda aurictdaria* Plate X. Fig. 5.

6. Serpentine {Serpentin€e)^ Nervures that run in a

serpentine direction. Ex. Dyna^es jtloeus. Plate
X. Fig. 4.

7. Insulate {Insidatce). Discoidal nervures that are

entirely unconnected with any others, or iridi the
base of the wing. Ex. Dynastes Atoeus. Platb
X. Fig. 4. a, b.

* lAnn. Tram, v. U iv./. 10^ 11. From my specimens, which
not in a very good state, I cannot ascertain whether this belongs to
any of the modern genera into which the Ichneumonei vmuH of
{^inne are npw divided.

S* Uncinate (UncinaUe). Nervures, that aftw run*
ning from the base towards the apex, turn back,
and running a little towards the base, form a hook.
Ex. Dynastes Aloeus* Plate X. Fig. 4. i\

~ 9. Recurrent {Recwrentes). When a nervure, or a
branch of it, after running towards the apex of the
wing, turns hack and runs towards the base. Ex.
Dynastes Aloeus, &c. Plate X. Fig. 4. l\

10. Connecting {Connectentes\ Nervures that run*,
ning transversely or obliquely connect the longi-
tudinal ones, and so form the areolets.

/• Areolets.

1. Radiated (IZaiui^^ff). When the areolets arechiefly

formed by radiating longitudinal nervures. Ex.

Forfiada. Psychoda Latr. Plate X. Fig. 5, Id.
S. Areate {Areata)* Radiated with a large basal

area. Ex. Papilio and many other LepidqpteraK

Plate X. Fig. 6.

3. Areolate {Areciata). When the surface of the

wing is divided into various areolets. Ex. DipterOf
Hymenopteroy and most Neuroptera. Plate X.
Fig. 7—14.

4. Reticulate {Reticulata). When the areolets are

extremely small and infinitely numerous. Ex. lA"

belhdina. Plate III. Fig. 5.
5* Open {Apertde). Areolets that terminate .in the

margin of the wing^ or that are not surrounded on

all sides by nervures.
a. Mai^ginal {Marginales). Open areolets that ter-

* Jonef. Liniu Trans, ii. t viii./. 1, d<*G, 8.

342 ORISMOL06Y.

ixuiHiate in the.m^gin. EtX^Tenthvedo. Pirate X.

Fig. 8.
, b^ Incomplete [Incomplete). Open areolets that ter-
Aiinate short of the jnargin. Ex. Apis.

6. Radiant (Badians), . When a small roundish areo-

Ifst is a centre from which setveral long ones di-
verge. Ex^ Stratyomis, Plate X; Fig. 15.

7. Petiolate {PettQlatt^). When an areolet is con-

nected with another, by a stem like a footstalk^.

Plate X, Fig. 8.
8* Ramulose (RamtHosa). When an areolet sends

forth a little unconnected branch. Ex. Pampibts^

SphejCj &c.**
9. ^NGULAR [Angulata:). When an. arefdet juts out

on one side into an anffle from which no nervure

proceeds, to form another areolet Ex. Elophilus

Latr. Cerceris Latr.*^ Plate X. Fig. 14.
10. DiDYMOUs {Didyrrue). When areolets are nearly

divided into two by a nervure. Ex. Cyclo^

stOTdta K.
11.^ Sesquialterq.us {Sesquialterce). WJien a minute

areolet is appended to a large one. Ex. Postcos"

tal areolet oi Hylotoma Latr.*

* Areolets of the Costal Area.

1. Costal [CostaUs)*. Areolets, one or more, bdem
r : . ithe.j/^fmfl. ^ Peate X. ^ig. 1 4?, 15i a, b.
S. .PosTCOSTAL (Postcosiales)^ . Areolets, one or more,
above the stigma. Plate X. Fig. 8, 9. a, b.

* Jurine Hymenopt, t. i./. 3. 6. -^ IlndTU iii. Gen. 4, 5.

• IM, U X. Gen. ^^M. * IM. Uvi. Gen. 2.

ORISMOLOGY. 343

** Areolets of the Intermediate Area.

L Protomesal {Protomesa). First series of the mid-
dle areolets {Areola medice)^ often consisting of
three^ and then divided into upper^ middle^ and
Umer areolets, Plate X. Fig. 8, 9. a,

2. Deuteromesal {Deuteromesai). Second series of

the same, often consisting of two, and then divided
into upper and lois)ei\ Ibid. b.

3. Tritomesal ( Tritomesce). Third series of the same.

Ibid. c.

K» Stigma.

1. Blind {Ccecum). When the stigma is wholly opaque,

and neither begins nor terminates in a minute
areolet Ex. Most Hymenoptera.

2. Fenestrate {Fenestratum). When the stigma be-

gins or terminates in a minute areolet. Plate X.
Fig. 11. »i'".

L, Number.

1. Apterous {Aptera). Having no wings.

2. Dipterous (Diptera). Having two wings.

3. Tetrapterous [Tetraptera). Having^^wr wings.

/. LEGS {Pedes).
A, Number.

1. Tetrapod (Tetrapus). An insect having only^r

perfect legs. Ex. Vanessa.

2. Hexapod {Hexaptis). An insect having six legs.

Ex. Insects Pro]^ in general.

3. OcTOPOD {Octopus). Having fight legs. Ex. Ara-

neidce.

344 ORtSMOLOGY.

4* PoLYPOD {Polypus)* Having more than eight legs
but under yg^« Ex. Ghmeris. Scutigercu

5. Centipede {Centipes). Having more iSaaxiJiftjf legs

but under ttsio hundred. Ex. Scohpendra.

6. Mybiapod (Myriaptis). Having two hundred l^s

or more. Ex. Iidus.

JB. Situation.

!• Antepectoral (Antepectorales). The forelegs, or
arms, affixed to the Antepectus.

2. Medipectoral {Medipectorales), The mid-legs,

affixed to the Medipectus.

3. Postpectoral {Postpectorales). The hind^legs, af-

fixed to the Postpectus.

4. Distant (Distantes). When the pairs of legs are

remote fi*om each other at their base. Ex. /n/^-
mediate legs of Copris Geoffr.

5. Approximate {Approximati). When they are near

each other at the base. Ex. Posterior legs of Co^
pris GreoflRr.

6. Equidistant (.Mquidistantes). When all the three

pair are equally distant at the base. Ex. Cassida,

C, DuratioD.

1. Persistent {Persistentes). Legs which the insect

has in all its states. Ex. The legs attached to the
trunk. N.B. These are called Legs {Pedes)*
Plate XVIIL Fig. U. a.

2. Deciduous (Decidui). I^egs which the insect has

not in all its states. Ex. Membranous legs of Ca^
terpiUars. PLATEXVIILFiG.ll.fi. iiJi. These
are called Prolegs (Propedes).

ORtSMOLOOYk S4<5

3. Acquired (Acquisiti). Legs which the insect has
not in itsjirst state, but which it acquires subse-
quently. Ex. Abdominal legs in Scolapendra^ lu^

lu$9 &C.

2>. Denomination.

1. FoKE-LEGS {Aniici). The Jirst pair. Taken by

themselves called Arms {Brachia).

2. Anterior {Anteriores). The ttm Jirst pair of legs*

3. Mid-legs {Intermedii). The middle pair of legs.

4. Hind-legs (Postici). The last pair of legs.

5. Posterior {Posteriores). The ft»o last pair of legs.

6. Abbreviate (Abbreviati), Legs with an imperfect

tarsus. Ex. Vanessa.
?• Ambulatory {Ambalatorii), When the tarsi have
a spongy sole. Ex. Chrysomela L., Curculio L.

8. Cv Ksoniovs {Cwrsorii). When the fore tarsi of some

males excepted, they have not a spongy sole. Ex.
Carabus L., Cicindela L. Plate XIV. Fig. 7.

9. Saltatorious {Saltatorii). . When the hind legs

have strong incrassated thighs formed for leaping*^
Ex. Haltica^ Orchestes^ the GhyUime. Plate
XIV. Fig. 5.

10. Natatorious {Natatorii), When the legs are com-

pressed or ciliated, and formed for sTiXiimming. Ex.
Dytiscus^ GyrinuSf Notonecta. Plate XIV. Fig. 6.

11. MoTATORious {Motatorii), Legs, which when the

insect is at rest, are in a perpetual vibratory mo-
tion. Ex. Tipula Latr.

12. FpssoRious {Fossarii). Leg with either palmate or

digitate tibiae. Ex. Scarites, CHvinoy Gtyllotalpa.
Plate XV. Fig. 5, 6.

13. Raptorious (Eaptorii). When the strong 'ppr-

r

34*6 oRXSMOLoav.

reeled thighs, usually of the fore-l^g, have a chan-
nel for the reception of the tibias, which are in-
flexed, and both others aimed with a double series
of spurs. Ex. Manti^y Nepa.
14. Prehenso Ri us (Pr^A^n^orii), When the thighs of
the hind-legs converge and the tibiae diverge so as
to form an angle which is armed with spines. Ex.
Gonyleptes K. Plate XIV. Fig. 8*.

E, Hip {Coxa),

1. Fixed, (-R'.2?^). When they are «o^ moveable. Ex.

Ihftiscusy Gtmyleptes,
^. Free (Libera). When they are moveable. Ex.

Hymenoptera, most Coleoptera.
S. Laminate {Laminatai). When the posterior coxae

form a broad thin plate which covers the trochanter

and the base of the thighs. Ex* Haliplus. Plate

XV. Fi<j. i.y.

4. Flocculate (Mocculata), When the posterior
coxae ace distinguished by a curling lock of hair
(Flocculus). Ex. Afidrena Latr.**

F. Trochanter {Trochanter),

1. FuLCRANT (Fulcrans). When the trochanter merely

props the thigh below at the base, but does not
at all intervene between it and the coxa. Ex. Ca-
ralms L.

2. Intercepting (Intercipiens). When the trochanter

intervenes between the thigh and the coxa, so as
entirely to separate them. Ex. Scarabaus L., Cur-'
culio L., Hymenoptera.

• See Kirby in Linn, Trans, xii. 450—. t, xxii./. 16.
*» Mm, Ap. Afi^L i. U iv. MdxHa **, c.f, 10. a.

ORISMOLOOY. 347

3. MoNOMERous {Mommerus). When it consists of

only one joint Ex. Coleopteray &c*
4» Dimerous {Dimerus). When it consists o{ two

joints. Ex. Ichneumon.

G. Thigh {Fmur).

1. Simple {Simplex). When it is no where particu-

larly thick.

2. Incrassate {Incrassatum). When it is very thick,

either partially or generally, and formed for leap- '
ing. Ex. Haltica^ &c.

3. Loricate (Loricatum). When the disk of the thigh

appears covered with a double series of oblique
scales, like a coat of mail. Ex. Locusta. Plate
XIV. Fig. 5.

H. 8hank {Tibia).

1. Alate {Alata). When the posterior tibia on each

side is furnished with a dilated process which pro-
bably assists it in flight Ex. Lygceus phyllopusy
&c. Plate XV. Fig. 2. a.

2. FoLiACEOus {Foliacea). When the tibia is late-

rally dilated into a tliin plate for carrying pollen.
Ex. Euglossa cordata^ &c.

3. CoRBicuLATE {Corbiculata), When it is fringed

with incui*ved hairs calculated for carrying knead-
ed pollen. Ex. Apisj Bombus^.

4. ScoPATE {Scopata). When it is is quite covered

with a brush of hairs with which it brushes off the

* Mon, Ap, Angl, i. /. xii./. 19. a, h»

348 ORISMOLOGY.

gross- pollen, and in which it carries it. Ex. ^«
drena Latr, ■

5. Calcarate {Calcarata)^ When it is armed with

one or more spurs {Calcaria). Ex. The majority
of insects.

6. ExcALCARATE {Bxcolcarota). When it has no such

spurs. Ex. Apion.

L Foot (Tarfttf).

1. ScopuLATE {Scopulatm)i When the first joint on
the under side is covered with a dense brush of
rigid hairs. Ex. Jpis^ Andrena^ Sec.**

b. METATHORAX.

1. Simulant {Simidans). When the mesothorax is
covered by theprothorax, and the Metathorax only
is visible, under the form of an elongated or en-
larged scutellum. Ex. Cimex L. Plate XXVIIL
Fig. 12.

«. POSTOORSOLUM.

1. Latent {Latens). When it is covered by the me-

sothorax; it is then usually a mere membrane.
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

2. Exposed {Apertus), When it is not so covered.

Ex. AtractoceruSj Hymenoptera^ &c

)3. P08TSCUTELLUM.

I. Distinct (Distinctum). When the postscutellum is
distinct from the postdorsolum. Ex. Locusta Leach.
Plate VIII. Fig. 12. u\

• Mon. Ap, Angl. t. iv. •♦. c/. 14'*. a./. 12.
" Ihid. t, xii./. 20.

ORISMOLOGY. S€9

9. Coalite {Coalitum). When it is not distinct Ex.
Blatta.

3. ScuTELLiFORM {SctdeUtforme). When itjs a trian-

gular elevated prominence resembling a sctUdlum.
Ex. Locusta Leach.

4. Can ALIFORM {Canaliforme). When it i3 a deepish

elongate channel running from the postdorsolum
to the abdomen. Ex. Coleoptera. Plate VIIL
Fig. S. ii. XXVIII. Fig. 10. v!.
5* Obliterate {Obliteraium). When this channel is
nearly or altogether obliterated. Ex. Ifymeno-
ptera.

y, POSTFRJENUM.

1. Tabulate {Tahijiatvm\ When it forms a broad

pannel or table on each side the postscutellum.
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

2. FuNicuLATE {Funiculatum). When it forms a nar-

row ridge. Ex. Pentatoma, Fulgora^ Ltbellidinn,
Plate XXVIII. Fig. 11, 12. v\

3. Cruciate {Cruciatum). When there are two funi-

cular ridges diverging on each side, which inclos-
ing a pannel form together a St. Andrew's cross,
and are connected with the base of the wings.
Ex. LibeUulina*. Plate IX. Fig. 7. t/.

4. Adnate {Adnatum)* When a funicular Post/ra'

num is closely adjacent to the isides of the meta-
thorax till it nearly reaches the wings. Ex. PeU'
tatoma. Plate XXVIII. Fig. 12. i/.

5. Transcurrent {Transcurrens). When a postfhe-

* Chabrier Sur U Vol des Insectes. Ann, du Mus. xiv. t, viii*./. 1 .
JL. fi.

$60 OttfSMOLOGY.

nam is at first adnate to the sides of the postscu-
tellum, and then diverges across the paHn^l to the
base of the wings. Ex^ Belostoma Gigas*

IV. ABDOMEN.

1. Coalite {Cocditum), When the abdomoi is not

divided into segments. Ex. AraneicUsy Chdonus.

a. Plicate {Plicatuni). When it consists of transverse

folds. Ex. Gonyleptes. The Cancrifarm Spiders.
Plate XV. Fig. 11.

b. Tense {Tensum). When it is not folded. Ex.

Most Araneid^.

2. Insected {Sectum). 'When it is divided into seg-

ments. Ex. Most insects,
S. Sessile (Sessile). When it has no footstalk, but is
closely united to the trunk. Ex. Coleoptera.

4. PetiolaTe (Petiolatum). When the first segment,

or more, is longer and much narrower than the
subsequent ones, so as to form a footstalk. Ex.
The Sphecidce, Ichneumon,

5. Adjointsd {Adjunctum), When it is connected with

the trunk by a very short petiole. Ex. Vespa L.,
Apis L.

6. SuPERTMPbsiTED {Supef'impositum). Whe>i the foot-

stalk of the abdomen is inserted in the up|>er part
of the postscutellum, so as to leave a considerable
space between it and the postpectus. Ex. Evania.
Plate IV. Fig. 2.

7. Retracted (Retractum)* When it is nearly with-

drawn within the trunk. Ex. Gonyleptes* Plate
XV. Fig. 11.

oiti&MOLoaYk 351

8. Obumbrate {Obumbrattcm), When itis OvVetsba-

dowed by the trunk and concealed under it« Ex.
The Cancriform, Spiders* Plate XV. Fig. ^ 1 0.

9. - Salta-porious {Saltatorimn). When the ventral

segments or the anus . axe. furnished mth elastic
processes which enable the animal to leap* Ex.
MachiliSf Podura. PlatjsJXV. Fig, 14*.
1 0. Natatorious {Nntatoritim). When the ^.bdomen is
terminated by flat fdUaceous appendages^ or the
tail is ciliated on eaeh. side, with den^e parallel
hairs, which assist the insect in swimmings Ex.
Larva of Agriony and Dytiscus.

i. CAUDA.

1.. Uncinate (Uncinata). When the tail is inflepted
so as to form a kind of hook. Ex. DolichopusS'

2. AnuNcous {Adunca). When it is crooked. Ex.

Chelostoma maxiUosa^, {Apis **. c. 2. y. K.).

3. Distinct {Distincta). When it is distinct from the

abdomen. Ex. Scorpio.

4. Cheliferous {Chelifera), When it is terminated

by a very thick forceps somewhat resembling a
lobster's claw. Ex. Panorpa$. Plate XV. Fig.
12.

5. Papilli FERGUS {PapiUiferd). When at the last

segment but one the tail exerts two soft fleshy or-,
gans, which secrete a milky fluid and yield £t power-
ful scent. Ex. Stdphylinm,

ii. OVIPOSITOR.

1. Ensate {Ensattis). When it is long, compressed,
and shaped like a sm>rd. Ex. Acrida K.

353 ORISMOLOGY.

2. Navicular {Naviadaris). When it is shaped like
a boat. Ehc. Tetiigonia F., Scaphura K.

S. Tklescopiform {Telescopiformis)^ When it con-
sists of several tubes retractile within each other
like the pieces of a telescope. Plate XVI. Fig.
2, 3.

4. AcuLEiFORM {Aculeiformis). The ovipositors of
Hymenopterous insects, which consist of the samo
parts, with the exception of the poison-bag (/o/e-
rium), whether used as weapons or merely in ovi-
position.

a. Exerted {Exerttis). When the vagina unemployed

is partly out of the body. Ex. Cleptes. ^

b. Extricated {Extricatus). When the valves and
* vagina unemployed are 'wholly out of the^body.

Ex. Pimpla. Plate XVI. Fig. 1.
€, Relexed {Reflexus). When the ovipositor is turned
up and lies upon the back of the abdomen. Ex.
Leticospis.

APPENDIX.

Terms particularly applicable to Larv^ and Pup-e.

LARViE.

1. Spinneret {Ikisulus). The organ which spins the

silk. Plate XXI. Fig. 9.

2. FoRCiPATE Lip (Labium Forcipatum). Mask of

larvae and pupes of Libdlulhm^. Plate XVI.
Fig. 5. a.

• \r

Vol. III. p. 125—.

ORISMOLOGYV S5S

i S. Unguiform Mandibles {Mandibula unguiform^).
The parallel claw-shaped inandibles of many Z)/-
ptera. Plate XX. Fig. 1, 2. c'.

4. Prop {Ereisma). A bipartite retractile glutinous or*

gan exerted from between the legs of the genus
Sminthurus Latr., and employed by the animal
' » to 'support itself when its legs fail it *.

5. Fkcifork {Fcecifurca), The anal fork on which

the larva of Cassidtty &c. carry their feces. Plate
XVIII. Fig. 2. a.

6. Mastigia {Masiigia). Two anal organs in the

larvae of Centra VinulUy exerting from their apex
a retractile flexible thread, with which they en-
deavour, by lashing their sides, to drive away the
. Ichneumons. Plate XIX. Fig. 2. a. ^ ,

7. Syringes {Syringia), Organs situat^ in various

parts of larvae, &om whidi they ejaculate a, watery
fluid- to aniioy or drive away their enemies^.

8. RuMULEs {MumvltB). Teat-like fleshy jprotube-

rances observable on the bodies of various larvae^.

9w Aeriducts [Aeridtictus). Respiratory organs often
foliaceous, with which the sides of the abdomen,
the tail, and sometimes the trunk of aquatic larva&
and pupae are often furnished. Plate XXIX.
Fig. 3—7.

10. Prolegs {Propedes). Fleshy exarticulate pedifbrm
often retractile organs, which assist various larvae
in walking and other motions, but which disap-
pear in the perfect insect Plate XVIII. Fig.
11, 12. ft,

* De Geer vH. 38—. t, iii./. 10. rr. ^ Vol, II. p. 251— .

« De Geer ii. 507. t. xi./. 16. in. n.

VOL. IV. 2 A

954 atLfiSi&LauYs

•• C09QNJ;TE Proleo^ {Propiiei eoncnaii\ Prologs

that have aa intire coronet of crotchets. Plate

XXIIL Fjs. 1.
b* 8bii^ic6koic^tii Proleos (Propedes smukoronati).

Pi^logs that have a semicofonet of crotchets,
lu TJkaAv Eti (Inermes). Prolegs that have no crotchets,
d. Stilt Prolegs (Piopedes grabatt). Prolegs that

^e unnaturally long, and elevate the animal.

Plate XXIIL Fi«. 7. a.
«. Coalite Stilt Prolegs {Propedes graiati coaliti).

When stilt prolegs unite so a» to form only one

leg bifid at its apex. Plate XXIII. Fio^ 7. &

1. Admintcula (-4rfm^wictt/fl). Semicoronets of minute
teeth which arm the back of the abdomen of sub-
terraneous pupa?, by which they are enabled to
emerge from under the earth. Plate XVI. Fio..
IS* e,

*.- Crei^astr/e {Cremastrasy. The anal hooks by
which many pupae suspend themselves. Platk
XXIII. Fig. 8. a.

S, CocooN [Follicvius), The silken case in which the
popsD of many insects are inclosed. Plate XVIL
Fig: 5—8.

N.B. Olhei: terms for pupae are explained Vol.^ IU.

p. 249.

LETTER XLVII.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Having consider^ insects as to their History, Ana^
tomy and Physiology, we must next enter a new and
ample field, in which, like most of our predecessors, we
shall often be perplexed and bewildered by the infinite
variety of dsYious paths which traverse it, and by the
mazy labyrinths in which the more we wander the less
ground we seem to gain. — You will easily perceive I am
speaking of the System of Insects, System is a subject
which has engaged the attention of Naturalists from the
time of Aristotle to the present day; and even now that
it has been so much and so ably discussed, they are far
Sroai being agreed concerning it. In our own country
e due has, however, of late been furnished, which upon'
the whole seems better calculated to enable us to thread

4

the intricate labyrinth of nature, than any thing previ-
ously^ excogitated. ^
There are two words relating to this subject concern-
ing which Naturalists seem not to have very precise ideas
— Method and St/stem. They have (Aen been confounded
and used indifferently to signify the same thing. Thus
we hear of a Natural Method and a Natural System.
Liinne seems to have regarded the fof-me?^ of these terms

2 A 2

^S6 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

as representing the actual disposition of objects in na-
ture*, while hy System he, understands their classifica-
tion and arrangement by Naturalists^. But if we con-
sider their real meaning, — a Method should signify an
Artificial and a System a Natural arrangement of ob-
jects^. As many systematists, however, have aimed at
giving a natural arrangement, though with various suc-
cess,— some, as the French school, (to which we are
principally indebted for the progress already made,) ap-
proximating nearer to the true idea than others, — and
none having a perfect conception of it, of which probably
in our present state, our minds, from its intricacy, are in-
ca|)9ble, — it might perhaps be as well to call every ar-
rangement whose object is confessedly artificial, a 3fi?-
thod : and that which aims at the plan of nature, a Sy^
stent. Under this view system-makers would be divided
into two classes,-^the Methodists and Systematists.

The system of nature, which we are now to consider,
may be viewed under a double aspect ; for with regard
to all created objects there is a System oi Distritrntiofi^
and a System of CotTelation^ which appear to be quite
independent of each other. The former will best fall un-
der our notice when we are treating of the Geography of
insects : I shall therefore now confine myself to the latter*
. When the Almighty Creator willed to bring into
existence this mundane system, he formed it according

• Pkilos, Botan. 97. n. 153. »' Ibid 98. n. 155, &c.

* Mtf^oBoc is rendered " An artificial and compendious mode of do-
ing Any thing ; a mode o^ieaeking or learning :" yLiBohma is *' To over-
come hy artifice,^* 2i/«-*};c«t applied tomusic is " \fuU and karmotuoui
assenihlage of tones." So that in fact, System should express the ac-
tual disposition of objects, or a xVrt/Mr<7/ arrangement ; and Method,
AU Artijiclal one. ^

SYSTEM OF INSfCTS. 857

to a preconcerted plan, with all its parts beautifully link-
ed together and mutually corresponding. AH things
were ordered in measure, and number, and weight^.
There was nothing deficient, nothing superfluous ; but
the whole in the strictest sense ^^ was very good^/' and
calculated in the highest degree to answer the;purpose
ofiks Great Author, I call it a system of Correlatiem^
because there is discernible in it, in the first place, a con-:

I catenation of its parts, by which, as to their forms and

I uses, objects are linked together in groups by a ch^in.^of

affinities ; so that we pass from one to the other by. gen-*

! tie gradations, without having to overleap any xmde in-

terval. We see also a gradual ascent from low to high,
from less to more excellent And this leads us to an-
other kind of reUtionsbip between natural objects, by
which, though pl^ced-in distinct groups or in a different
series, they in some sort represent and s}anboiize each

[ other. ^Examples of this relationship by analogy are to

be found in every kingdom of nature, and often form an
ascending series fromi the lowest to the highest; for, as
we shall see hereafter, these resemblances appear to

; maintain a certain correspondence with each other as to<

their relative situations ; so that, for instance, in the ani-.
malkingdam they ascend step by step, without being
linked by affinity or having any real juxtaposition, fi*om
the fowest groups, towards man, who stands alone at the ^
head, or in the centre of all. I shall say something on
each of these kinds of relationship.

I. The relation of affinity may be considered as to its
series and groups. A series, of course, consists of parts

" Wisdom, xi. SO. ^ Genes, i. 31.

358 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

«ithetr concatenated like a chain, or placed separately »t
small intervals from each other. It may run either in a
right line, or deviate from it in various ways. It s^pears
to be the opinion of most modem Physiologists, that the
series of affinities in nature is a concatenated or con-
tinupus series ; and that though an hiatus is hete and
there observable, this has been caused either by the an-
nihilation of some original group or species in conse-
quence of some great convulsion of nature, or that the
objects required to fill it up are still in existence but
have not yet been discovered ^ : and this opinion is found-
ed on a dictum of Linne, Natura*.*saltus nonjkcit^. If
this dictum be liberally interpreted, according to the
evident meaning of the word saltus, few will be disposed
tQ object to it; since both observation and analogy com-
bine to prove that there must be a regular approxinia^
tion of things to each other in the works of God ; and
that could we see the whole according to his original
plan, we should find no violent interval to break up that
approximation : but if it be ccmtended, that in this plan
there is no difference in the juxtaposition of the nearest
groups or individuals, and never any interval between
them, I think we are going further than either observa-
tion or analogy will warrant. Were this really and
strictly the case, it seems to follow that every group or
individual species must on one side borrow half its cha-
i^aet^rs from the preceding group or species, and on the
other impart half to ttie sttcceeding^ . But one of the

* W. S, MacLeay m Lnm, Tranf. xiv. 64.

^ linn. Si^L Nat i. U. ^ Qu. Whether every i^

species or group has not some one or mote peculiar characters which
it neither derives from its predecessor nor imparts to its successor in
a series ?

S¥ST£M OF JN8KCT8. 359

most evident lawis of creation is variety; and if we surrey
all the works of the Most High, we shall no where dis-
cover that kind of (M*der and symme^ that diis strict
iater{M^etation implies. Hie general march of tlature
therefore seems to say, that there must be varying though
not violent intervals in the series of beings : or in other
#ords, some conterminous spedes or groups have biore
characters in eofnimon than others*

It was the opinion of Bonnet (in this field himsdf a
host) and many other Katutalists, that the series of be**
ings was not only continuous^ but undeviaiingi ascending
in a direct line from the lowest to the highest*. Othsrsi
finding that this theory could not be made to accord
#ith (he actual &ifAe of things in nature, thought that m
scale of the kingdoms of nature must represent a map or
net^; thus abandoning a continuous series: and Lamafdc,
as was before observed^, for the solution of the difiiculty^
arranged Invertebrate atiiinals iii a double subraqrose
one. Mr. W. S. MacrLeay iihd (without consultation
nearly at the same time) Professor Agftrdh, Mr. Friei^
&c. have given to the learned world an opinion wladb
approxiihales mc»*e nearly to what we see in nature: ^iz*
That the arhi^gement of objects is indeed in a continue
ous series, but which in its progress forms various con-
vcdntionsj each of which may be represented by a circle,
or a series that returns into itself <*• According to this
ppiniom-which seems the most consistent of any yet ad-
▼anced, and which reconciles facts which upon no other
plan can be reconciled,-*-the series of beings is invdlv^

• dSuvres vil 51—. * N, Diet (fHiiL Nat xx. 485.

<= Vol. III. p. 11— , ** W- S. MacLeay. Hor, Snl6»^

molog, passim ; and in Linn, Trans, ubll supf* SS — «

3^0 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

in the highest degree, rolling wheel within wheel ad in*
Jmitum^ and revolving, if I may so speak, round its cen-
tre and summit — man ^ : who, though not including in
himself all that distinguishes them, is still the great typ^
in which they terminate, and from which they degrade
(HI all sides.

It is .by this convolving series that the various groups
into which the kingdoms of nature seem resolvable are
formed. We are instructed by the highest authority
that every thing was created ^ after its kind ;" and the
common sense of mankind in all ages has imposed classic,
generic, and other names implying sections, as well as
specific ones, upon natural objects : and though many
modem Physiologists have asserted that species form the
only absolute division in nature ; yet as all seem to allow
that there are groups^ and many that these are repre-
sented, by a circle or group returning into itself^, the
most absolute division in nature, we will not contend
for a term^. We now come to consider these groups
themselves, and may nodce them imder various denomi-
nations.

It is customary to consider all the substances of which
our globe consists as divided into three kingdoms, — the

• N. Diet d*HUt. Kat. xx. 485. »» The idea of a conti-

nuous seriet militates somewhat against that of a circle returning
into itself. The progression of the series may be in a circle ; but at
the point of contact where the second circle meets the first, the lines
must cut each other; and at this point of intersection of the two ctr.
des are of course the osculant groups constituting the first and the
last of each circle, which in their intervention come in contact with
each other, or rather forming transiUon groups. If each circle is re-
garded as absolute^ the serien is broken, though the osculant groups
connect the circular ones. ^ Mr. MacLeay almost ad«

mits that there are natural genera. Hor, Ent, 49^,

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 361

Mineraly Vegelable, and Animal^ but strictly speaking
the primary division is into organized and inorganized
matter ; the former resolving itself into the two king*
doms last mentioned. These, like England and Scot-
land of old, have their *^ Land Debateable ;" occupied
by those Productions moyennes^ (to use a term of Bon-
net's^,) which are as it were partly animal and partly
vegetable. From this territory common to both, the two
kingdoms are extended in a nearly parallel direction till
they reach their extreme limits, without any incursion from,
either side upon their mutual boundaries, but each show-
ing its kindred with the other by certain resemblances
observable between opposite points ; so that valley cor-
responds with valley, mountain with mountain, . river:
with river, sea with sea*' ; not, however, so as to form an
exact counterpart, but only in some general features.
But to leave metaphor ;— -as the vegetable kingdom is dis-.
tinguished from the mineral by its organization and life,'
by its circulation of sap, and by its powers of reproduo'
tion by seed or otherwise ; so is the animal from the ve-.
getable by its powers of volition and locomotion^, by its
nervous system and organs of sensation, and the senses
to which they minister, by its muscular irritability, and
by its instinctive endowments.

Having made these observations with regard to the prii*
mary division of natural objects in general, — what I have
further to say will be confined to the animal kingdom,
and ultimately to the branch of which we are treating. ;

» CEuvr. vii. 62. »» N, Diet. d*Hut. Nat. ii. 34--.

^ Even those animals that like the SpongUe toid.Alct^onia are ag-
gregate, and fixed by a common base, have a partial degree of vo-
luntary locomotfon in their cells.

S62 SYSt£M OF INSECTS.

i. Lumarck divickd the animal kingdom into two jpro-
vif$dei^ or subkingdoms as they ate now called ; the one con-
sisting of all those iiumals whose skeleton is internal and
built upon a vett^bral column, which are d^iominated
f^eti^a^S; and the second^ of those whose skeleton or
iti& r^resentative is for the most part eMemal^ incladii^
the muscles, -^these are called In'vertebrates^, Though
this disdnction is so marked as in general to form a mo^
strUdng characteristic, yet when these two provinces ap-
proach each«»ther, it begins to disappear. Thus the ver-
tebral column, forming one piecci with thd shell '^, becomes
external in the Chelonian reptiles^ or tortoises and tur-^
tlds^ md almost disappears in the cyclostomous fishes;
and there is the beginning of an internal one in the Ce-
j^l^pada^ or eutrle-fish belonging to the Inve^rtebrates.
Dr. VireV) ^ssummg the nervous system as his basisy
lt»ig since divided the animal kingdom, widiout assign*
ing names to them, into three subkingdoms^ ; M. Cuvier
hMjbur-^^Vertebrata; Molliiscas Artiadaiai Madiata^:
and Mr. MacL^ay, finding jift?^ variations of that system,
divides aj^imals into j^^ provinces or subkingdom^ of
which I formerly gave you some account^ ; — ^viz. Verte-^
hr&ta^ in which the nervous system has only one piinci*-
pal centre ; Annulosa^ in which it is ganglipnic, with the
ganglions arranged in a series, with a double spinal
chord ; MoHuscOj m which it is ganglionic, with the gan<-
glions dispersed irregularly but coitnectfid by nervous
threads ; Madiata, in which it is JUamentous, with the
nervous tlireads radiating from the mouth ; and Acritaj

*' Vol. til p. 10. »> Cuv. Anat, Comp, i. 173.

'^- N, Did. (THisL Nat, ii. 25. Ihid. ^6—.

• Vol. III. p. 13-.

SYSTBM OF INSECTS. 563

in which this system is molecular*. And to this division
of tlie kingdom, as £nmded on a satisfactory basis, I
dioidd Recommend you to adhere : bat in popular Ian*
guage we may speak of vertebrate and invertebrate ani-
mals, as forming the first subdivision of them, taken from
a character obvious to ever}' one who sees them.

If you inquire into the rank of each of these subking-
doms, of course you will assign the principal station to
the Veriebrates^ which are the most perfectly organized,
to which man belongs, and over which he immedialiely
presides. If we form the scale according to the nervous
^stem of each province, that in which the organ of
sensation and intellect is most concentrated will stand
first ; and in proportion as this organ is multiplied and
dispersed will be the station of the rest, which will place
them in the order in which I have mentioned them ; and
die- AnnulosOf to which insects belong, will precede the
MolluscOj which Cuvier and Lamarck had placed befot^
them on account of their system of circulation. But
when we rdlect that a heart and dretdation occur in some
of the conglomerate Polypi^ animals that approach the
vegetable kingdom ; that some of the acq^halom Moliusca
have no visible organs of sense, except that of taste»
whose substance is little better than a homogeneous gefai-
tinous pulp, and who seem from their inert nature to

* Hor, BnUmohg, 200-—. When my account of three primary
tjpes of Nervous S;y6tem8 (see dbove, p. 3—;) vvtis written^ Mr. Mac*
Lefty's system did not occur to my recollection, or I should have no-
ticed it M'ith due honour. To the other types there mentionied
should be added a /our/A, the jUamerdouSf or that of the Radiata:
the ganglionic bciiog stated as resblvabfc int<» two.

^ Savigny Mem, sur les Anini, gems Verfebt, IL i. 3.

364 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

have very slight powers of voluntary motion^, we shall
be convinced that a heart and circulation ^lone, unaccom-
panied by a more concentrated nervous system and more
perfect structure, cannot place an animal above those
which in every other respect so obviously excel them.
With regard to insects particularly, we may further ask — :
Who that considers how man employs his powers and
organs even in his most degraded state, or that contem-
plates the wonderful works that he is enabled to accom-
plish when his faculties receive their due cultivation and
direction, can avoid regarding him as superior to the rest
of the animal creation? And what unsophisticated
mind, not entangled in the trammels of system, when it
surveys the industry, the various proceedings, and almost:
miraculous works. that have been laid before you, the*
waxen palaces of the bee, — the paper cottages of the^
wasp and hornet^ — ^the crowded metropolis of the white;
ants, — the arts, the manufactures, and stratagi^ms of
other insects,-^-the associations and labours for. the com-*
mon good of those that are gregarious ;'-^will not at once
conclude that they must be a superior race to the slug,
the snail, and others, which live only to eat and propa^
gate their kind ?

Or who, that considers the wonderful structure of
the animals whose cause I advocate, — ^the analogy that '
exists between their organs of manducation, of motion,
and of sensation, and between various other parts of it^,
with those of the higher animals, — the acuteness of their
senses, their wonderful strength of muscle*^, and powers

» MacLeay Hor. Ent. 204.

'' Vol. III.' p. 46—. See above, p. 239,

^ See ab^ve, p. 188—^.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 365

of locomotion *, — ^but will think them superior to the head-
less and almost inanimate oyster or muscle, or the con-
glomerate Alcyoniaj though they have a heart and circu-
lation?

Who again, that observes that in proportion as pe-
date animals approach to the human type, tlieir motions
are accomplished by fewer organs, — that man walks ore
sublimi upon two legs ; the majority of quadrupeds upon
Jour; insects upon six; the Arachnida apparently upon
eight; most Crustacea upon ten; and the MyriapodsvJ[iA
others upon many^—h\xt will thence conclude that insects
must precede the Arachnida and Cmstacea ? *

Who, orice more, that reflects that if any of the supe-
rior animals are deprived of a limb it can never be re-
produced, and that in insects the same circumstance oc-
curs ; while spiders and Crustacea if they lose a leg have
the power of reproducing it, and the Mollusca if they are
decapitated can gain a new head, — will consent to their
being placed after any of these animals^?

Lastly, who that recollects that the Mollusca are her-
maphrodites, like most plants, bearing both male and
female organs in the same body, — but will allow that in-
sects, in which the sexes are separate as in the Verte-
brates, must be more perfect, and of a higher grade ^ ?

ii. We now come to the Classes into which the Annulosa
are divided. This term appears first to have been em-
ployed by Toumefort, and was adopted by Linn^**. As
the nervous system of animals furnishes the most promi-

■ Vol. II. p. 31 0 — . ^* In thia respect insects excel many

reptiles, which can reproduce some of their parts.
* See MacLeay Hor. Entomolog. 303, 206—. 298—.
^ Linn, PhUos. Botan. n. 155, 160.

36^ SYSTEM OT IKS£CTB;

nent distinction of a ftubkingdom, so the circulation of
their flaiils, and their respiration necessarily connected
with it, seems best to point out the classes into which it
may next be resolved. But having fully explained my
ideas on this subject in a former letter,. I need not here
repeat what I then said*.

iii. As we have subkingdoms, so we may also have stA^
classeSf or such large divisions of a class — not founded up^
on internal organization or any of the primary vital func«
tions, but upon dififereht modes of taking their food, or
such other secondaty characters — as include more than
one Order. To this description Cleirville's Mandibtdata
and HaustelUUa appear to me to belong, which I think
are by no means entitled to the rank of Classes; fi>r
whoever compares these two tribes together will at the
first glance be convinced, by the numerous characters
they possess in common, notwithstanding the different
mode in which they take their food, that they form on^
connected primary group. This circumstance, tiiereibre^
only furnishes a clue for their further subdivision into
two. secondary groups, separated by distinctions certainly
of a low^er value than those which separate the Crttstaeea
and Arachnida from Insecta. This is further confirmed
by the variations that take place in their mode of feed^
ing in, their different states ; some from masticators be-
coming suctorious {Lepid^era)^ and others from being
suctorious becoming masticators (AfynaeleoUf Dytiscusy
&C.), — which shows that tliis character does not enter the
essential idea of the animal.

• Vol. III. Letter XXVIII.

IV. Vkxt to Classes and Subdasaes wt ntQ to ccmsider
those groups of insects that are denon^nated Orders*
The characters of these at first were taken principally
from the instruments of flight or the absence of them ;
and the name appropriated to each Order hf Linne, after
Aristotle, had reference to this circomstance. But this
alone does not afford characters sufficiently discrimina->
ting : for though to an accurate observer a difference in
these organs appears to be characteristic of most of t)ie
Orders, yet in some it is not easily dietected or defined.
Ih the Neuroptera there are as many different types of
wif^ as there are of tribes or suborders. So that it
seems not possible so to construct the definition of every
Order, as to lake its character from the organs of flight
alone. Linne was sensible of this, and was compelled
to have recourse to subsidiary characters in the majority
of his : his observation therefore with regard to Genera^.
-^that the character does not give the genus, but the
genus the character^, — applies equally to Orders; and the
characters included in the definition of an Order, should
be the result of a careful examination of its oompone&t
gmnps.

On a former occasion I named to you the Orders into
which it appeared to me the Class InBeeta might be di-
vided •* : they were these, Coleaptaa; Strepsipterai
Dermapterai Orthoptera ; Hemiptera : TruJiopter^r
Lepidaptera ; Neun^tera ; Hymenopiera ; Diptera ,•
Apkantplera; Aptera. I then briefly explained them

* Seias Charactcrem non eonstituere Genus, sed Geniis Charac-
terem ; Characterem fluere t Genere, non Genus e Charactcre ; Cba-
racterem non esse ut Genus fiat, sed ut G^enus noseatur. pftihi,
JSpian. n. 169. ^ Vol. 1. p. 66. note \

S68 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

merely for the sake of illustration, and that you might
know what description of insects were intended wheti
these Orders were mentioned in my letters, without in-
tending to affirm that I had arranged them in a natural
series, or that all of them were perfectly natural. I shalf
now consider them separately, and conclude with giving
my sentiments as to which should be placed first

* Orders in which th^ ordinary Trophi all occur^ or the

Mouth is perfect*.

_ *

I. CoLEOPTERA^ {Eleiithevata F.). Aristotle maybe
called the founder of this OrderjHiilice he l>oth*^named
and defined it*^. Both his nmrSlfthd* definition were
adopted by Linne ; and the formef (^ith -ftie exception
of Fabricius and his school) by alt'Si^irt^eding Entomo-
logists. To his definition 7Fm^5 in* a sheath^ ^ other
characters-have been added ; asthefelding of the wings,
and the straight suture by which the elytra are united V
Aristotle^s character, though to be found in the great
majorit}' of the Order, is not universal, since there are
some beetles that have neither wings nor sheath, as the
female glow-worm ; and many that though they have the
sheath have no wings, as Meloe^ many Cdrabi, &c. ' To
the transverse folding of the wings there are also excep-
tions ; as in Buprestis^ Molorchus^ &c. The straight su-
ture by which one elytrum exactly coincides with the
other without lapping over, fails in Meloe: so that no one
of these characters can be called universal in the Order ;

* Vol. III. p. 418. ** Derived from »oXfof, a sheath, and

^Ts^oif, a wing. *" Hist. Animal. I. iv. c. 7. 1. v. c. 20. "

** 'Oact ra vTe^6» tx^t sv Kohtet. • Latr. Gen. Crust, et

Ins. i. 169. Oliv. Ins. i. Introd. v.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 3^69

but as an exception or two does not invalidate a rule,
and these are sufficiently universal for the purpose of
pointing it out, they may be retained. Perhaps it will
be an improvement to add the kind of the m^amarphosisj
which, as far as known, prevails universally.

I>EF. Metamorphosis incomplete^.

Z^eg^^inosculating, posterior coxae usually trans-

ft

verse. .
Elytra corneous or coriaceous, without veins,

united by a sti'aight suture, so as mostly to

cover the wings completely^.
Wings longitudinally and transversely folded *= :

neuration simple**.

2. SxREPSiPiiEiiA^ K. {Rhipluptera Latr.) The cba-
tadxxs of this Order were first given in the Linnean
TramfKtions^ and it has been adopted by Latreille, who
however^ vnthout sufficient reason, has changed the name
originally imposed to RhipAiptera ^. Rossi, who was the
first that discovered an insect of this Order, concluded
that because it was parasitic it must be Hymenopterous f
and it is certainly more nearly related to that Order than
to the Dipteraj amongst which M. Lamarck has arranged
it^ and with which it has no character in common, ex-
cept having two wings. This is one of those Orders,
consisting of few genera and species, which, fi*om their
connecting two circles^ Mr. MacLeay has called oscu-

■ Vol. I. p. 65. ** In some genera, as Molorckus,

&e., they do not completely cover the wings, Plate X. Fig. 1.
Plate I. Fic. 4, 5. ^ In Buprestis, Molorckus, &c.,

they are only longitudinally folded. ** IPlate X. Fig. 4.

^ From i'^erf/is, a turning or tvnsting^ and xrt^y,

f Vol. hi. p. 501. note ".

VOL. IV. 2 B

370 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

lantj who places it between the Hymenoptera and Cdea-
ptera^.

Def. Metammphosis sifbincomplete^ ?

Pseudelytra twisted, attached to the anterior

leg^
Wings not covered by the elytra, longitudinally

folded, forming nearly the quadrant of a

circle** : neuration simple.
Anus styliferous*.

3. Dermaptera ^ ( Ulonota F. Orthoptei^a Oliv.). This
is another osculant Order, evidently connecting the Co-
leoptera with the Ofikoptera. The elytra are of a cori-
aceous substance, have a straight suture, and are not
veined, and the wings are folded longitudinally as well as
transversely, — circumstances which connect it with the
former Order, — while the shape of its wings, its oral or-
gans, and its metamorphosis, show its affinity to the latter.
It was established at the same time and in the same
work with the preceding Order, in pursuance of a sug-
gestion of Dr. Leach, and consists solely of the Linnean
^nus Farficula.

Def. Metamorphosis semicomplete.

Elytra coriaceous, without veins, united by a

straight suture, so as partly to cover the wings.

Wings longitudinally and transversely folded,

each forming nearly the quadrant of a circle :

neuration radiating^.

* Hor. Eniomolog. 371—. ** Linn, Tfans. xi. 96—.
<^ Ibid. t. IX, f. 1. d. ^ Plate II. Fig. 1.

* lAnn. Trans Ibid./. 16. K ' From hq(A», a skin,

* Plate X. Fig. 5.

J

SYSTEM OF INSECl^S. S?!

4. Orthoptera* {Ulonota F.). This Order, which
Linne at first regarded as belonging to the Coleopfera^^
and afterwards improperly added to the suctorious iJl?-
miptera, was very judiciously separated from both by
De Geer, under the name of Dermaptera, a name not
improper, and which ought to have been retained. Its
present name was, I believe, assigned to it by Olivier ;
and as this is generally in use, I shall not attempt to dis-
turb it. Dr. Leach divided the Order into two, sepa-
rating the Blattina M^L. from it, under the name of
Dictyoptera ^. He was led to this by the tegmina decus-
sating or lapping obliquely over each other, whereas in
the rest the horizontal portion of one tegmen lies longi-
tudinally over that of the other ; he also probably took
their depressed body into consideration; — these circum-
stances, however, rather indicate a tribe or suborder;
and as such Mr. MacLeay regards it

Def^ Metamorphosis semicomplete.

Legs suspended.

Tegmina generally pergameneous^, reticulated
with nervures, more or less incumbent, cover-
ing the wings.

Wings longitudinally folded, ample : neuration
reticulated.

5. Neuroptera*' [Synistataj Odonota F.). Of all
the Linnean Orders this appears to consist of the most
discordant tribes ; so that it seems next to impossible to
construct a definiticm that will include them all, unless

• From og^fl^, stredght, * Fn. Suec,

« From liJCTvov, a net, * See above, p. ^58.

* From ytv^u, a nerve.

2 B 2

S72 SYSTEM 0¥ INSECTS*

indeed we admit M. Latreille's idea, ddqf^ed by Mr.
MacLeay ', that a varied metamorphosis is its essential
efafuracter ; or^ to speak more largely^ variety itself seems
the diaractdristic of the insects composing it, in every
state ; and tbisre is scarcely a common distinctive charac*
ter in tk^ir perfect state, upon detecting which in any in^
dividual yon may exdaim-— TbisisaNenropterous insect
The only one that I have been enabled to seize is, that
their scaptike and parapleurce are parallel and placed
obliquely ^ Whether, with all this puzzling variation
ittid dissonance between the different tribes of which it
is now composed, this Order can be considered as a na-
tntal group, in <lie present state of our knowle^e it
would be rash to decide. I shall observe, however^ that
the LibeUtdinaj-^^fAke^BT we regard l^ir mets^cnorpbo^
sis and the singular 43baFacter beioire described that di*
stinguishes their larva and f^upa^, their oral instru-
ments^, the remarkable position of tfaetr l€gs% tbeir
general form, the wonderful and |ieculiar machinery by
which their wings apermioved^^ and other circumstances
of didr internal anatdniy,-^^Hkf any are to be regarded as
forming a separate Order, are the first entitled to that
distino(»on. At ipresent, with our £riend Mn MacLeay,
I shall consider it as not further divi^faie^ and as consist-
ing of five principal forms, I must not omit to observe,
iliat in the JEphemerina the parts of the mouth, except
the labrum and palpi, appear to be mere rudiments^.

• Hor, Entomdog, 433. »» Vol. III. p. 665.

» Ibid. p. 125-.. - Ibid. p. *W, i43— , 43«; 455—.

• Ibid. p. W. ^ See abote, p. 181—.
» N. Diet, (PHist, Nat. x, 344.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. $7^

Dbf* MetamorpAosis varying* Larva a hexapod.

Wings four in most, and reticulaled with nu«

merous areolets.
Prothorax distinct.

Scapula and Parapletine poxaUd^ and oblique.
Tail of the female without a terebrant, or pun-*
gent multivalve ovipositor^.

6. HruRviovTERA^ (PiexataF.). Mr. MacLeay con*
siders Sirex L. as bemg osculant between the Order we
are now entering upon and the Trickoptera^ and TWi*
tktedo L. as belonging to the latter. He £^q)ears to
ground this opinion chiefly up<m a consideration of their
faurvie and a slight difference in their ovipositor. As die
Ofder^ as settled by Linn^ has always been deemed on%
of the most natural ones, and all die great Entomolo*
giats of ike present sera have agreed with him in thinking
it so; it seems to me that to prove them mistaken in this
(pinion, the question should have been discussed at more
length, and that it requires iu*gmnents of more weight than
any Mr. MacLeay has at present produced, to set it
aside. He appears in general to lay great ^stress upon
an agreement in larvae and the kind of metamorphosis ;
and I am ready to acknowledge that it forms a strong
presumption in favour of any hypothesis of affinity be-*
tween certain tribes. But when it is had recourse to as
fimdamental and infallible, I think' it is pushed far be*
yond what it will bear, or is warrantable. I may be
wrong; but in my apprehension, a striking agreement
in their general structure in the penfect state, wbidi is

^ The ovipositor of Raphidia seems merely calculated to introduce
its eggs under bark ; it seems incapable of borii^.
From vfbnift ^ membrane*

374 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

the acme of their nature, affords a much more satisfac-
tory reason for keeping two tribes together, than any
difference observable in their larvae or metamorphosis,
for separating them. Let any one compare the structure
of these two tribes with the Trichoptera on one side, and
the Hymenoptera on the other, and it will require but
a glance to convince him of their greater a£Snity to the
latter ; and the simple inspection only of Jurine's plates
of the wings oiHymenoptera is calculated to produce
the same effect. With regard to their larvcBj the re-
semblance between the case-worms and the pseudo-ca-
terpillars of the saw-flies seems to me very distant, and
the numerous prolegs of the latter have scarcely a legi-
timate representative in the former. The larvae of the
genus JLyda F. {Cephaleia Jur.) lose the prolegs intirely,
and in one species, which much resembles the vermiform
larvae of Hymenoptera^ the real legs are so extremely
short as to be scarcely discernible^ ; so that it requires
no great stretch of faith to believe that saw-flies or 5i-
rices may exist in which the legs disappear^. But it is
this very tribe, whose larvae thus approach to those of
the other Hymenoptera^ in which Mr. MacLeay finds
the greatest external resemblance to the Trichoptera^.
In fact the difference between the saw-flies and Siricid/jCy
and the remainder of the Hymenoptera^ amounts to litde
more than what takes place in the Diptera Order be-

' De Geer ii, 1035. '■ Since this was written/

Mr. Stephens has showed me a remarkable Hymenopterous insect
taken by him in Hertfordshire, which appears to have the antenns
of one of the JchneumonidcB and the wings and abdomen of a TVn.
thredo h,, so as to form a link connecting the two tribes or suborders.
This may probably have a verfniform larva.

* Hor, Entomolog. 431.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 375

tween the TipididiJBy AsilidcBj Muscida^ &c., in which
also the metamorphosis differs*

Another argument upon which Mr. MacLeay seems
to lay some stress, is taken from the number of parts
into which the ovipositor of the saw-flies is resolvable,
which he finds to consist of Jour pieces ; while in what he
considers as the genuine Hymenqptera, it is formed only
of tkree^: but in fact, in these last there are two spiculee,
answering to the two saws of Tentkredo, so that the va-
gina in which these move may be considered as a double
sheath : only, as these were to be pushed out at the same
time, and the others alternatel^j it was necessary that in
the latter each sheath should be separate, to admit of this
motion ; but as to its composition, the weapon in both is
essentially the same. At any rate this structure could
furnish a reason only for the formation of a separate
group in the same Order, but none for the transfer of
such group to another^ which had no such instrument
at all; since, as we have seen, the Trichoptera extrude
their eggs at once in a mass^. I do not mean, however,
that it should be inferred from what I have here said,
that there is no tendency in the saw-flies towards a Tri-
chopterous type, for in them nature seems pointing that
way, but the distance is too great, and the number of
types of form necessary to fill up the interval too many,
to warrant in my opinion their removal from the one
Order to the other.

Def. Metamorphosis mcom[Ae\jQ^ .

' Hor, Entomolog. 429. ' *» Vol. III. p. 67. See above,

p. 155. * * Whoever consults De Gcer ii.

941—. t xxxiii. /. 14, 15. /. xxxvi. /. 27. and /. xxxix. /. 7> 8, will
be convinced that the metamorphosis of Tenthredo L. is incomplete
rather than obtected.

S76 SYSTEM OF INSECT&

Trophi in most not used fpr mastication'*
Wings four : neuration generally ateolate^*
Prothcrax obsolete, giving place to an ample

collar. ^

Tarsi pentamerous.
Ooipositor 5 — 6-vaIved, the vagina darting

forth two retroserrulate spiculas.

** Orders in which all the xrrdinary Trophi do not occtiry

or the Mouth is imperfect^.
7. Hemiptera** (j%7igo^a F.). Linne at first con-
fined this Order to those insects which have a promuscisj
which he denominated a rostrum ^ ; but afterwards, con-
vinced that the Orthoptera oi the moderns could not be.
associated properly with the Coleoptera; instead of form-
ing them into a distinct Order, as nature would have
dictated — perhaps to avoid the multiplication of Orders
and without altering his definition — with equal infelicity
he added them to this. Subsequent Entomologists^ who
saw the iinpropriety of masticating insects thus herding
with suctorious ones, restricted the Order to its old limits ;
but Latreille very judiciously altered its arrangement,
and divided it into two Sections, separating those whose
hemelytara terminate in membrane, from those in which
they are mostly tegmina, or of a substance intermediate
between that of the elytra of Coleoptera and that of the
wings of the Tetrapterous Orders. He denominated the
first of these sections, or rather suborders, Heteroptera^

■ The Hymenoptera, though they have all the usual oral organs, can-
DOt be denominated masticators generally ; these organs, especially
the mandibles, being chiefly used in their economy.

^ See above, p. 341. '^ Vol. IIL p. 418-

^ From i^/fft/, (he half. " Vol. III. p. 464--. linn.

Si/st, Nat. Ord. IJ.

SYSTEM OS" IKS£CTS. S77

and the last, Homopiera^. Dn Leach, obsenring that
very considerable differences take place both in theeecH
nomy and structure of Hetero|}terous and Hontt^terous
insects, followed De Geer in considering them as sepa-
rate Orders, which he has called Hemiptefa and OnuH
ptera^ and in which he has been followed by Mr. Mao-
Leay ; who, however, with his usual accuracy and judg-
n]ent,has restored the aspirate to the latter name^. Their
agreement in having a promuscis^ or instrument of suc-
tion, with a jointed sheath, at present induces me to hesi-
tate as to the propriety of their separation, and to consi-
der them as forming secondary rather than pjrimary sec-
tions of the Class. That you may be enabled to judge
for yomrself upon this subject, I will state the principal
features in which they differ. In the first place, the He-
teropterous section usually sucks the juices of animals j
and the Homopterous, those oi plants; in the former, the
Hemelytra^ besides their different substance, as well as
the wings, cross each other ; while in the latter, the organs
of flight are deflexed, and do not lap over each other at
ail. The antennae also of the one are often long, and do
not terminate in a bristle; while in the other, with few
exceptions, they are very short and setigerous. In the
Hetej'optera the body is depressed and flat, in the Homo*
pteraconvex and thick. In the former, the scutellum is one
of the principal features of the trunk ; in the latter, not at
all remarkable ^, Other differences in the structure, both

* If considered as iniiorders, 'their denomination should not ter.
minate precisely as that of Orders, Perhaps Hemipterita and Hete-
ropterita might be an improvement.

^ Hor. Entomolog. 374—. ^ Vol. III. p. 56(1

378 SY8T£M OF INSECTS..

of head^ trunk, and abdomen, might be pointed out; but
these you will chiefly find noticed in my letters on the
External Anatomy of Insects, where I treated of those
psrts^ I shall here, therefore, only further mention the
ovipositor also as forming a most striking distinction^.
Def. Metamorphosis semicomplete in almost all.

Mouth promuscidate^.

Wings covered by Hemelyira or Tegmina^.

Tarsi mostly trimerous, rarely dimerous or
monomerous^.

8. Trichoptera* Kirby {Synistata F. Neuroptera
Latr.). M.M. Latreille and MacLeay are of opinion
that Semblis F, and Phryganea L. ought to be associated
in the same group ; and the latter gentleman has backed
his opinion by some apparently cogent arguments ^ : there
are others, however, that seem to me more cogent, for
considering them as belonging to different Orders. Who-
ever examines the several tribes into which Mr. Mac-
Leay has divided the Neuroptera^ will observe in all of
them a distinct prothorax, a circumstance which they
possess in common with those Orders that use their man-
dibles for mastication; whereas in those that do not use

» See above, p. 163—, *» Vol. III. p. 464.

« Ibid. p. 613—. 606—. ^ Ibid. p. 685—.

• From S^/|, r^i)cof, hair* Mr. MacLeay, thinking it indispu-
table that the Perlida should be included in this Order, suggests the
propriety o^ changing its name, both a9 inapplicable, and as being
preoccupied by a Dipterous genus. As I do ^ot think the PerUdce
belong to the Order, and as the great body of the Trichoptera are
distinguished by hairy upper wings, I cannot think the name impro-
per : but to apply a name to a Genus which terminates like the 'deno-
minations of Orders, I think leads to mistakes, and should not be to-'
lerated.—K. ^ Hor, Entomohg. 430 — .

SYST£M OF INSECTS. S79

them for mastication, as the Hymenoptera, or that take
their food by. suction, this part is replaced by a mostly
narrow collar, forming a part of the alitrunk ^. The ex-
istence then of the prothorax in the Perlid/ef and of the
coUar in the Trichopteruy affords no slight presumptive
evidence that they belong to different Orders. Another
circumstance that weighs much with me is, that the type
of the neuration of the wings in Perla is taken from the
Neuroptera^ in the Trichoptera from the Lepidoptera ;
the same observation extends to the legs of both^, and
likewise to the abdomen. Even in their oral organs, as
far at least as relates to their mandibles, those of Per/a,
though membranaceous — a circumstance occurring even in
Coleoptera — areof aNeuropterous type; while the angular
termination of the cheeks in the Phryganece approaches
to the Lepidopterous mandibular rudiments. The prin-
cipal argument on which Mr. MacLeay's opinion seems
to rest, is, that the larvae of both are aquatic, and clothe
themselves in cases formed of various materials : but
though this circumstance shows that they approximate
in the system, it does not prove that they belong to the
same Order, since the general habit and appearance of
the two animals when arrived at perfection contravenes
it. The larvae of Myrmeleon and of Leptis Vermileo form
pit&lls of sand for their prey, and when they become
pupae, cover themselves with it*^ ; but this in them does
not even prove an affinity, but only an analogy. The
larva of Perla is carnivorous^, that of Phryganea F.

* Vol. III. p. 548—. ** The location of the legs to-

gether, their long coxae, and their calcaria, are analogous also to
those of the Lepidoptera, ^ Reauni. vi. Mem. x. t xxxii.

/. 13. t, xxxiv./. 1—6. De Geer vi. 169—. U x./. 7, 8.

^ N, Diet, d*Hist, Nat. xxv. 286.

680 STST£M OF INSECTS.

mostly hcrbivcHTOus ^ : so that they arc not precisely simii^
lar in their habits. Whether they resemble eaoh other
altogeiker, in their form, does not dearly ^appear. The
above reasons will, I trust, justify me for .considerii^
th^n at present as belongmg to different Onkrs ; but if
fonher discoveries should confirm the opinion Mr. Maoi^
Leay espouses, I shall have no hesitation in yielding
to it.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete**.
Mouth emandibulate.
Prothorax replaced by a collar.
Wings four, upper pair mostly hairy, lower

ample, folded : neuration branching.
Anus without setae. Bggs extruded in a gelap-

tinous mass^.

9. Lepidoptera'^ {Glossata F.)« Concerning this
Order, no difference of opinion exists amongst Ento-
mologists. Besides the scales that cover their winga»
they are distinguished by the peculiar instrument of suiv
tion formerly described : neither of these characters, how?
ever, is perfectly universal ; some of the Order {Nudaria
Haw.) having no scales upon their wings, and others
being without any antlia {Aglossa Latr.). Other peculiar
characters are to be found in them ; for instance, the

* De Geer iL 511 — . He however observes, that they often at-
tack other injects : but the form of their mandibulae, Hke that of the
caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which also on some occasions become
carnivorous (Vol. J» p. 386), is fitted for a vegetable diet. De Qeer
Ibid. 505. I* This is evident from De Geer's a£«

count. Ibid. 616. i. xii,/. 14. t. xv./. 4.

<: Plate XX. Fig. £5, ^ Yrom Xtwtt;, a saUe.

SYSTEM OF INSSCTO. SSI

4

patagioi or tifaipeU^ that adorn their evafliesoeDt ihoraK^^^
and the teguAce^ <x base-<xiyeri5, of a shape quite dissisular
to those of Ifymem^iera^ which oover and deftud the
base of their wiags^. As in the la^ Order^ their ksg&
are located all together with scarcely any space interve-
niBg between tiban ; and tib^ often agree ^o in their

I>£^. MeUmoirpkdiu obtected ^.
JMboift iaitliate<^.
Flp^^Uortm verp shotrt^'CoVea^ fay afrair of tip«

pets.
Wv^ four, coterled partialiy^ar generally widi

minute scales : neuration branching, aften

with a central ai^eolet.

10, DiFTfiRA^ {Antliata F.}* This Order likewise ap-
pears indebted for its name to the philosopher of Stagyra^
who distingui^es the members of it from their counter-
parts— ^the Hymenqptm'a by their having an oraly while
these have an anal sting ^ : and we may add^ that while
the last, on account of their wonderful economy and the
benefits which by them Providence confers upon man-
kind, have been justly regarded as the princes of the
winged insect world, — the former, when we consider the
filthy and disgusting habits of their grubs, and the an-
noyance, both from their numbers and incessant assaults,
of them, in their fly-state, may very properly be consi-
dered as its canaille. Almost all the tribes of Hymeno-
ptera, from the $aw*fiies to the ants, have their represen-

» Vol. IILp. 6a9. Plate IX. Fig. 4. ^ {bja. Fig. 6.

" V«.. I. p. m^. * Vol. III. p. 469;

* From h^f huice, or double, * Hist, Animal. 1. iv. c. 1, ^7.

382 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

tatives in this Order. Though the number of wings is
its prominent feature, yet there are two-winged insects
in other Orders, as some Ephemerce; and the Eprobos^
cidea of Latreille seem rather a kind of winged Apteroj
if we consider their trophic than real Diptera; or they
may form an osculant group, partly winged and partly
apterous, between the two. I have before rem£^rked,
that though, apparently, the insect? of tlik Order
have only two wings, yet the under or secondary wings
of the other Orders have in them their representative*.
Their poisers also, I formerly observed to you, are pro-
bably more connected with their respiration than with
their flight**.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete, or coarctate.
j!1£9z^A proboscidate^.
Prothxn-ax replaced by a collar. Sutures of the

trunk mostly spurious**.
Wings two, with winglets attached to them:

neuration various*. Poisers.
Tarsi pentamerous. ^
Ovipositor yaxioxis^.

11. Aphanipteras {Aptera L. Lamarck. Rkyngota F.
Suctoria Latr.). This is an osculant Order, and is dis-
tinguished from the other Aptera L. in undergoing a
regular metamorphosis. The larva is vermiform, the
pupa incomplete, and inclosed in a cocoon. Probably

» Vol. II. p. 358—. »» Ibid. p. 359.

^ Vol. III. p. 466—. ^ Ibid. p. 554—.

* Ibid. p. 634. ' See above, p. 157.

' From a^etvnsf incorupicuout ; so named because something like
elytra appear.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. S8S

the common flea and the chigoe would form distinct
genera. The number of species of fleas is greater
than has been supposed. I have been informed that.
Dr. Leach is acquainted with fourteen British species
alone. Besides their metamorphosis, they are distin-
guished from the Aptera by the number of segments into
which their body is divided, and by th^ pentamerons
tarsia Something like elytra and a scutellum appear to
distinguish these insects.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete.
Body apterous, compressed.
Mouth rostrulate*.
Tarsi pentamerous.

We are now come to those insects which, though they
change their skin in their progress to their state of per-
fection, and some of them, as we have seen^, gain addi-
tional segments and pairs of legs, yet none of them ac-
quire wings or wing-cases : these I have considered as
forming one Order, under the denomination of

12. Aftera^ {Synistata, Antliata, Unogata, MitO'
sata F.). I do not give this as a natural Order. Our
knowledge, however, of the internal organization of its
groups, is not at present sufficiently matured to warrant
the formation of them into hew Classes^ : till that is more
fully ascertained, it seems to me therefore better to con-
sider these groups as forming three Suborders : the ^rst
consisting of the Hexapods: the second of the Octopods;
and the third of the Polypods. It will be better, I think,

' Vol. hi. p. 471. «» Ibid. p. 23.

• From «, privalwe^ and xTf^i». * Vol. lU. p. 22—.

5S4 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

instedd of giving a g^ieral character of the Order, —
which priticipally consists in the insects composing it be-
ing Apterous, or never acquiring organs of flight^— -to
define 6ach of these groups.

Hexapods {Ametabolia heafih, Ametabcia M^L.). Six
legs may be regarded as the natural number in^i^^ the
iasect taribes ' : but our business now is with those Aptera
whose body consists of three greater segments, and which
in none of their states have ever more or less than six
legs, and consist of the three Linnean genera Pediadusj
LepismOj axid Podura {Thysanura Latr* and Anoplura
X«each). Some of the mites {Acartis L.) are hexapods,
but their body has no distmction of head, trunk, and ab-
domen» The metamorphosis of most female Blattce, and
of some other Orthoptera that are apterous, cannot be
regarded as materially different from that of the Hexa-
pods, Amongst the Anoplura, — ^the Pediculi, or lice, are
suctorious, and the Nirmi, or bird-lice, masticators, — a
circumstance which in them does not appear to indicate
even a different Order, and proves that undue stress ought
not to be laid, independently of general characters, on
the mode in which insects take their food.
Def. Metamorphosis coqfiplete.

Body consisting of three principal segments.

Mouth perfect, or rostellate^.

Antennce distinct.

JLegs six, in every state.

Octopods, This suborder consists of the Trathean
Arachnida of Latreille, excluding the Pycnogonida; of

■ Vol. III. M supr. " Ibid. p. 47«.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 385

the Acaridetty Sironidea^ Phalangideaj and part of the
Scorpionidea of Mr. MacLeay,and, with some exceptions,
of the Linnean genera Acarus and Phalangium* This last
tribe (for with Linne, 1 include Chelifer and Obsidium in
the Phalangidea,) on one side approaches Scorpio by
Thelyphomis^ and on the other the Aranidea by Gony^
leptess or, according to Mr. MacLeay, the transit is to
both by Galeodes^, But as there is reason for thinking
that this last belongs to the Pulmonary Arachnida^, and
forms a peculiar type in that Class, I think the transit
from the one to the other is as above stated. The folded
abdomen of Gonyleptes seems much to correspond with
that of the cancriform spiders (Epeira cancriformis^ &c.).

Def. Metamorphosis complete.

Body consisting of one or two principal seg-
ments.
Mouth various*^.

Antenna obsolete, or represented by mandibles
Legs mostly eight, but in a few six only**.

Polypods. This suborder consists of Dr. Leach's
Class Myriapodoj or the Chilognatha and Chilopoda of
Latreille, corresponding with the Linnean genera lulus
and Scolopendra. Mr. MacLeay has arranged them in
the same Class with the Hexapods, and connects them
with the Anoplura by means of certain intestinal worms
of an indistinct annulose structure* (-En/o^oa Nematoidea
Rud.), in which the sexes are dioecious, and some of

* Hor. Entomolog. 381, ^ Vol. HI. p. 22. note \
c Ibid. p. 472— ^ IMd! p. 654.

• See ftbove, p. 229«

vol.. IV. 2 C

B86 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

which arefumished with lateral spinulae^ — thus, as he sup*
poses, connected with the Polypods ; and with the Ano'
plura by others {Epizoaria Lam.) in which appendages
appear somewhat analogous to the legs of Hexapods, as
in Cecrops Leach, and which like them are parasitic ani-
mals*. But the right of these worms to be considered
as members of the same Class with the Hexapods and
Polypods at present appears rather problematical, and
requires further examination.

Def. Metamorphosis subcomplete**.

Body consisting of numerous segments.

Mouth perfect*^.

Eyes compound or aggregate.

Antennce distinct.

Legs six on the trunk, many on the abdomen.

I must next say something on the Orders of the Arach-
nida. Every one, at first sight, sees that spiders and
scorpions are separated by characters so strongly marked,
that they look rather like animals belonging to different
Classes than to the same : these form the two primary
Orders of the Arachnida^ and they appear to be con-
nected by two secondary or osculant ones, — on the one
side by Galeodes^ and on the other by Thelyphonus and
Phrynus^. This Class, although there is an appearance

■ Hor, Entomolog, 286. ^ The number of segments

and legs acquired by these insects in their progress to thtar last stat^
distinguishes their metamorphosis from that of other Aptera, and fe-
quires a distinct name. /^ Vol. III. p. 418.

' When I said (Vol. TII. p. 31.) that Phryntu probably belotiged
to the true Arachnida, it escaped my recollection that Lotreifle had
placed that genus there.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. Sd7

of eight \egSy is, strictly speaking, of a Hexapod type ; for
the anterior pair, ordinarily regarded as legs and per-
Ibrmm^ theur filnction, are really the analogues of the
maxillary palpi of perfect insects^ This will be evident
to you if you examine any species of Galeodes^ Thiese
aniiOfials, if we look at them cursorily, we should regard
as Decapods; but when we trace the two anterior pairs of
apparent legs to their insertion, we find that both pro-
ceed from the head^ which in that genus is distinct from
the trunk ; while the three last pairs, which alone are fur-
nished with claws, are planted, as legs usually are, in
the latter part. The first pair represent the ordinary palpi
of Arachniday are analogous to the labial ones of Hexa-
pods, and, as likewise in Phrynus and ThelyphonuSj are
more robust than what are usually taken for the first
pair of legs ; but they differ in being considerably longer,
and instead of terminating in a chela are furnished with
a retractile sucker*. The second pair are more slender
and shorter than the first; they correspond precisely with
what are deemed the first pair of legs of Octopods and
Arachnidaj and are clearly analogous to the maxillary
palpi of perfect insects. Whether the base of the first
pair of these palpi is in any respect analogous to the la-
bium of insects, (as that of the second seems to be to their
maxillae,) I am not prepared to assert : it will therefore be
most advisable to name tliese palpi anterior and poste-
rior : but as they evidently proceed from the head in
Galeodes, and in that genus are clearly analogous to
those of the Phrynidea^ (which in their turn as clearly
represent those of the Aranideay) it follows that in all

'^ L. Dufour Six Nouvell, Arachnid, &c.Mnru Gen, des Scienc,
Phynq, IV. ill 17. t lm,f, 7,b,

2c2

388 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

they are organs of the part representing the head^ and
therefore not in a primary sense legs; although in a 5e-
condary^ as M« Savigny has proved, they may be so
called^.

1. Aranidea M*^L. (-dfran^fl L,, -4rfln^"d^ Latr.) The
Aranidea^ or spiders, seem resolvable into two suborders,
— the Sedentaries and the Wanderers; thus forming, per-
haps, what Mr. MacLeay would denominate the normal
groups of a circle of Arachnida.

Def. Mandibles armed with a perforated claw.
Head and Trunk coalite.
Palpi pediform, anterior pair without claws.
Abdomen without segments or elongated tail.
Spiracles two**.
Anus furnished with an apparatus for spinning^.

. 2. ScoRPiONiDEA M^L. {Scorpio L. Latr.)

Def. Mandibles chelate.

Head and Trunk coalite.

Anterior Palpi chelate**.

Posterior Palpi pediform.

Pectens two^

Abdomen divided into segments and termina-
ting in a jointed tail, armed at the end with a
sting ^

Spiracles four pairs.

*■ Mem, sur les Amm. sam Vertehr, I. i. 57 — .

»» Plate XXIX. Fig. 1. « Plate XV. Fig. 10. T".

Plate XXIII. Fig. 15, 17. 7"'. «• Plate XV. Fig. 7.

• Plate XXVII. Fiq. 50. ^ Called the CetUrit. Vol. III.

p. 389, 717.

system of insects. 389

3. Galeodea.

Def. Headdis^ctK

Eyes two.

Mandibles chelate with dentated chelae.

Palpi pedlform, the anterior pair thickest with
a retractile sucken

Trunk consisting of two principal segments,

^ with a minute supplementary posterior one ^.

Spiracles two, placed in the trunk ^.

Pseudo^eciens two**.

Abdomen divided into segments.

Anus unarmed and without a spinning appara-
tus ^

4; Phrynidea.

Def^ Mandibles unguiculate.

Anterior Palpi chelate or unguiculate', very ro-
bust.

Posterior Palpi pediform, very long and slender.

Abdomen divided into segments.

Spiracles two pairs.

Anus terminating in a mucro, and sometimes in
a filiform jointed tail without a sting at. the
end.

* M. Latreille thinks that in Gcdeodes the prothorax is coalite with
the head (N. Diet. d'Hist, Nat. xii. 370.) ; but that it is not so, is evi-
dent from the six real legs being affixed to the pieces behind it.

*» L. Dufour vbi Jiupr. IV. iii. 18. ° Ibid. 19.

** Und. t. Ixix./. 7. d. * When the characters of the

Class Arachmda were drawn up (Vol. III. p. 30.) I had not seen a
Galeodes: they should be thus amended :

Palpi four : anterior pair pediform, cheliform, or unguiculate ; pos-
terior pediform.

Trunk Legflksix, &c. Plate XIII. Fig. L

S90 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

V. Having considered the Orders into which Insecta
and Arachnida may be divided, I am pe:^t to ^ve you
some account of the groups into which each is further
resolvable. To draw out, however, a complete scheme
of these would be deviating from my province, and ex-
tend this letter to an enormous length. Indeed, to give
the natural primary and subordinate sections of every
Order, would require a knowledge of the subject to which
no Entomologist has yet attained. I shall therefore only
say something general upon them, and refer you to an
example of eacli kind of group.

Previously to the groups themselves tlieir nomenclature
claims our attention. M. Latreille in his last arrange-
ment of Annulose animals has divided his Orders into
Sections; Families; Tribes; and Genera: his tribes he
has often further subdivided into lesser sections, repre-
sented by capital and small letters-^. Mr. MacLeay,
discarding the term section, has Tribes; Maces {Stirps);
Fatnilies; Gene7*a^ and Subgenera^. But as in descending
from the Order to the lowest term, or the species, a series
of groups gradually diminishing in value, which require
a greater number of denominations than have yet been
employed by Entomologists, often occur, I think we may
with benefit to the science add to the list. I would
therefore propose the following primary and subordinate
divisions of an Order : 1. Suborder; 2. Section; 3. Sub-
section; 4?. Tribe; 5. Subtribc; 6. Stirps; 7. Family;
8. Genus ; 9. Subgenus. I would further propose that
each of these successive groups should have a name al-
ways terminating alike, so that the value of the group

* N, nU'L d'HisL Nat. x. 276. Coleoptet-es d* Europe, i. 76- .
^ Anntdosa Javamea, 5.

SYSTEM OF INS£CT(SUr 391

when spoken of might always be known by the tennina-
tion : — thus if a subcbuss end in ata^ a suborder might
end in itas a section in anUi a subsection in ena; a tribe
in inOi a subtribe in ofm; a stirps in una ; and a family
in idiBs the genera being left free.

With r^ard to their characters^ we are not to place
our groups upon Procrustes' bed, and lop or torture
them to accommodate them to every standard we may
have fixed for them : assuming one set of characters for
saborders, another for tribes, and so for every other
group ; for the value of characters varies, — those that in
scmie cases are common to an Order, in others indicate
only sections, or tribes, or genera and species, or some-
tynes even sexes. What is constant in one group is not
so in another, and vice versa; so that it is a vain labour
to search for a universal character. If it is our wish
really to trace the labyrinth of nature, we can only ac-
complish it by a careful perusal and examination of her
various groups. It is singular how much and how &r
various Entomologists, and those of the very highest
dass, have been misled by a kind oi favouritism to give
too universal a currency to certain characters for which
they have conceived a predilection. Some have been
the champions of the antenna: others of the trophii
others again of the wings ; and others of the metamoP'
phosh. These are all characters which within certain
limits lead us right, and are an index to a natural group ;
but if we follow them further, we leave the system of nar
ture, and are perplexed in the mazes of a method*.

Let us now see whether we can pitch upon any sub-

* See above, p. 356.

$92 SYSTEM OF INJECTS.

Carder which will afibrd an example of every group that
we have lately named. Mr. MacLeay, from a consi-
deration of the larvfls of that Order, has divided the Co-
leoptera into five primary groups that may be denomi-
nated Suborders, Whether these are all natural groups
has not yet been made sufficiently evident. It answers
my present purpose, however, to assume it as proved* I
select therefore his Chilapodimorpha for my suborder,
altering the name as above proposed to Ciilopodimor"
pkita: for my Section I take the Predaceous beetles, or
Adepkaga of M. Clairville, distinguished by having the
upper lobe of their maxillae biarticulate and palpiform ;—
these I would denominate Adephagana^ or devourers. They
consist of two groups forming two subsections, the one
terrestrial and the other aquatic i which I would name,
following Mr. MacLeay, Geodephagena and Hydrodc"
phagena. These two subsections are each resolvable
into two Tribes constituted by Linne's four genera Cicin-
dela and Carabus; Dytiscus and Gyrinus. The first tribe,
remarkable for the swiftness of their^igA/, I would name
EupterinOf or fliers ; the second, equally noted for run-
ningf Eupodmai or runners; the third Eunechinay or
swimmers ; and the fourth GyronecMna, or swimmers in
a circle. The second of these groups, the Eupodma^ are
resolvable into two other groups or Subtribes; one dis-
tinguished by having the cubit or anterior tibia noithedj
(which, from their being in general not very brilliant in
colour, I would call Amaurona, or obscure) ; the other
having the cubit without a notch, (which, from the bril-
liancy of many of them, I would name Lampronoj or
splendid). These subtribes are both further resolvable
into two or more races {Stirpes). I select that to which

SYSTEM OF INSECTS, S93

the crepitant Eupodina belong, containing tbose which
from their usually truncated eljrtra MM. LatreiUe and
3>ejean have named Truncatipennes^ : these^ to shorten
the mune, I call Truncipennuna. This brings us down to
the lowest group formed out of genera and subgenera ;
or the family^ which from its principal genus is named
Brachinidcdj and which leads us to the genus Brachiimsy
and the subgenus Aptince. Thus we get the following
scale, expressing every division of an Order, till we ar-
rive at its lowest term, or the species that compose it

SUBOIIDER

ChilopodimorpJata M*^L.

Section

AAephagdota Clairv.

Subsection

Geodephagena M^L.

Teibe
Eupodina

SUBTRIBE

Amaurona

Stirps

Truncipennuna Latr.

Family
Brachinid^

Genus
Brachinus

Subgenus
ApHnae.

In the construction of this scale I have endeavoured

* ColeopL d^ Europe i. 75.

894 S3r8TEM OF INSECTS.

to steer 'dear of being led by any system, but, with the
exception of the Suborder j which I assfume, to resolve it
into natural groups gradually decreasing in value, or
tf>ndi"g to the lowest term, which appear aU of them to
have been considered as such by preceding Entomolo-
gists. The four Tribes into which the two subsections
Geodephc^ena and Hydradephag&na appear resolvable,
are not only distinguished by the characters of the per-
fect insect, but likewise by those of their larvss, whidi
are constructed on four distinct types ; those of the Gy-
ronechina being the most perfectly Chilopodimorphous
of die whole, and those of the Eunechina the least so^.
The former appear rather to form an osculant tribe, or
one without the circle, than one within it ; and to be go-
ing o£P towards another section, including Hydrophilusj
Spheridiumj &c. I must observe, that between Dytiscus
and Hydrophilus there is a striking agreement both in
their form and habits in their larvae^, and even in seve-
ral characters in the perfect insect ; so as in many re-
spects to generate a doubt whether they ought not to
enter the same circle and to follow each other. Yet the
change of habits ia the latter, which from a carnivorous
larva becomes a herbivorous beede ; the consequent
cjiange of structure in their oral organs, their antennae^
and other striking differences ; and the evident interven-
tion of the Gyronechma and some other osculant tribes
between the two, forbid their union in one and the same
circle.

* Vol. III. p. 167--. I formerly hinted {Ibid. p. 164.) that tho
larva of dcmdela L. may be regarded as Araneid^omi : this is fur-
ther confirmed by its having eight eyes> (and not fir,) as I have since
discovered, and by the aspect of its large head and prothorax. The
other larvse of the Adephagana have twelve eyes.

SYSTEM OF IVSECtS. S95

vL I need not say more on liiose lai^r groups of an
Order which conduct us to what are denominated its
genera; but upon these last it will not be a waste of your
time to enlarge a little. In the last edition of tiie Sy^
sterna Naturaj and in its appendixes, Linn6 has described
2840 species of Insecta and JratAnida^ which he divided
into 83 genera, allowing upon an average nearly S5
species to each genus. From the paucity of the mate*
rials, therefore, of which' his system was constructed,
there was no loud call upon him for numerous genera.
But now more than thirt}' times that number are said to
have found a place in the cabinets of collectors % and
there is good reason for thinking that p^^aps half that
are in existence are as yet undiscovered ;*--this makes
it a matter of absolute necessity to subdivide the linneaxi
genera, which in fact, with regard to the majority of them,
were the primary groups of his Orders, rather than an
approximation to the tdtmate. But this principle may
be carried too fiu: : for it is the nature of man to pass
fix>m one extreme to the other : and this seems to me to
be the case when it is proposed to make genera the ex^
treme term of subdivision before you arrive at species.
But it is argued by a very acute Zoologist, that simplicity,
perspicuity, and room for necessary variations are best
preserved by distinguishing these subdivisions each by
an fqpprqpriate name^ : — Granted. But still it is only a
dioice of evils. It would require probably more than
10>000 names to designate them, were every extreme
giroBp distinguished by a name : but if Mr. MacLeay's

^ Mr. MacLeay says that more than 100^000 Armulota exist in
collections.— i7or. Eni, 469.
^ Vigors in Zoolog, Joum. I. ii. 188.

396 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

admirable pattern exhibited in his genus Phanaus^ were
followed, it would not call for more than 2000 — could
the trifling difficulty -occasioned sometimes by the disco-
very of a new group, be set against the advantage of hav-
ing only 2000 names to commit to memory instead of
10,000 ? But ii^ after all, it is judged best to name sub-
genera, M. Savignjr's excellent plan of distinguishing
them by a plural termination in ^ would diminish the
weight of the above objection, and might be used with
advantage.

When the component parts of any minor group diSer
from another, — ^for the most part in important characters,
indicating some tangible difference in theit habits and
economy, and confirmed by peculiarities in their larvae ;
and these differences run through the whole, except that
as usual they grow weaker as it is passing off to another ;
especially where they are striking in the centre or type
of the group, — ^this is always alegitimate genus : butwhere
the characters assumed are very slight, and nothing pe-
culiar in its habits, economy or larva, warrant such di-
stinction, it ought not to be conferred.

viL I must next say a word concerning species and
varieties. A species is a natural object whose differences
from those most nearly related to it had their origin
when it came from the hands of its Creator ; while
those, that characterize a varieiyj have been produced
since that event. As we do not know the value and
weight of the momenta by which cUmate, food, and other
supposed fortuitous circumstances operate upon animal

» Hor. Entomology 1^—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 397

fbnns, we cannot point out any certain diagnostic by which
in aU cases a species may be distinguished from a va-
riety ; — ^for those characters that in some are constant, in
others vary. In general, where there is no difference in
formj appendages and organs^ proportions^ sculpture and
larv^e^'-'^colour alone, especially in insects inhabiting the
same district, only indicates a casual variety. Thus^^Ao-
dius luridus F. has sometimes pale elytra with the striae
black {Scarabceus nigro-stdcatus E,B.) : at others it has
black spots between the striae, as in the type : in a third
variety the elytra are black at the base and pale at the
apex (So. varius E.B.) ; and lastly, in a fourth they are in-
tirely black (&. gagates E.BO ; — ^yet all these in every
other respect precisely correspond. But the converse
of this will scarcely hold good ; for doubtless minor dif-
ferences of structure are sometimes produced by a dif*
ferentfood and climate : which may probably account for
some variations obseiTable in the individuals apparently
of the same species obtained from different. countries.

Having considered the kind and value of the groups
into which Annulose animals, and more especially insects,
may be divided, I shall next call your attention to their
composition. There are Jive numbers and their multi-
ples which seem more particularly to prevail in nature :
namely, Tmo — Three — Four — Five and Seven. But
though these numbers are prevalent j no one of them can
be deemed universal. The binary number we see exem-
plified when two branches, so to speak, diverge firom a
common stem, — as in the Vegetable nnd Animal kingdoms ;
the terrestrial and aquatic Fredaceous beetles; in the
thalerophagous and saprophagous Lamellicom ones; in

S98 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Ab Anopbtra^aa^d Th^anura; the CUbpoda and Cii"
logfuitha.wnaxxifftApterm»m9ect&i mthe&mpKmnba
and Aremidem ammtffSb the At^acknida; and in the JUa*
crura snA Brackt/ura amongst the Decapod Crmtacea,
Again, in other cases three seems to be the most. promi-
nent number: this takes place sometimes with regard to
the primary groups of an Order, or what I denominate
the Suborders* Thus we have the Diurnal, Crepusculary
and Nocturnal Lepidopfera; the Linnean genera Blatta^
Mantis f and Gryllus constitute the Orthoptera ; and other
instances of this number might be produced in some
minor groups. But that which appears to prevail most
widely in nature is what may be called the quatemo'-qui^
nary I according to which, groups consist of four minor
ones; one of which is excessively capacious in comparison
of the other three, and is always divisible into two ; which
ffves^ve of the same degree, but of which, two have a
greater affinity to each other than they have to the other
three'. Mr. W. S» MacLeay, in the progress of his in*-
quiries to ascertain the station of Scarabceus sacer L., dis-
covered that the thalerophagous and saprophagous Pe-
talocerous beetles resolved themselves each into a circle
oontaining;/{tv such groups. And having got this princi-
ple, and finding that this number and its multiples pre-
vailed much in nature, he next applied it to the Animal
Kingdom in general : and from the result of this investi-
gation, it appeared to him that it was nearly, if not alto-
gether, universal**. Nearly at the same time a discovery
almost parallel was made and recorded by three eminent

* Linn, Trans, xiv. 56 — . It is to be observed, however, that
what Mr. MacLeay calls the aberrant groups arc usually also resolv-
able into two. ^ Hor, Entomolog, 31S, et passim.

SYSTEM OF INSECnS. S99

Botanists, MM. DecandoUe^ Agardb, and Fries,
regard to some groups of the Vegetable Kingdom * ; and
more recently Mr. Vigors has discovered the same qui-
nary arrangement in various groups of birds ^. This is a
most remarkable coincidence, and proves that the distri-
bution of objects into fives is very general in nature. I
should observe, however, that according to Mr. Mac-
Leay's system, as stated in his Hora EntomoIogioBf if
the osculant or transition groups are includied, the total
number is seven ^\ — ^these are groups svuM in number
bodi of genera and species, that intervene between aiid
connect the larger ones. Eadr of these osculant groups
may be regarded as divided into Ptm parts^ the one be-
longing to the upper drcle and the other to the lamer;
so that each cirete or larger gFOup is resolvable into five
interior and two exterior ernes, thus making up thenum*
ber seven. Though Mr. MacLeay regards this quinary
arraoligement of natural objects as very general, it does
not appear that he looks upon it as absolutely universal,
— since he states organized matter to begin in a dicho*
tcmiy^ : and he does not resolve its ultimate groups into
five species ; nor am I certain that he regards the penul-
timate groups as invariably consisting of five ultimate
ones. In Capris M^L. I seem in my own cabinet to
possess ten or twelve distinct types* ; and in Phdnaus^
the fifth type, which Mr. MacLeay regards as contain-

■ Linn, Trans, ubi supr. Mr. W. S. MacLeay informs me that
M. Agardh has found that the distribution of Ftici is regulated by
the same law. ^ Zod, Journ, iii. 31S— .

"^ Vol. III. p. 15. note *. ^ Hor. Entmnolog. 199.

• Viz. 1. Copris Hesperus: 2. C. reflexaj 3. C. SabcBus; 4. C. lu^
naris; 5. C. Carolina; 6 CGEdipus; 7. C.Midas; 8. Ccapu-
etna; 9. C, Bucephalus; 10. C. Mohsstu; II? C, Eridanus ; 12.
C, sexdentata K.

AOO SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

ing insects resembling aU Uie other types \ appears to me
rather divided into two; one formed by P. camifex^ Vin-
dex, igneuSf &c., and the other by P. splendidtdaSf^ri"
£er^ Kirbii^ &c. .

llie great point which demands our attention in con-
sidering a numerical arrangement of the Kingdoms of
Nature is the value of the component members of each
group. It is by no means difficult to divide a Kingdom^
a CHass^ or an Order into two, or three, or five, or seven
or more groups, according to any system we may be in-
clined to &vour ; but it is not so easy to do this so that
the groups shall be of equal rank. Yet it seems re-
quisite that in grouping our objects, as we descend to-
wards the lowest term we should resolve each only into
its primary elements, and of them form the next group ;
and so on till we come to species. When I say of equal
rankf I do not mean an exact parity between the mem-
bers into which a group is primarily resolvable,— because
there will always be a degradation in descensu from the
perfection of the type ; but merely that parity (to use a
metaphor) that there is between children of the same
mother, differing in their relative ages and approach to
the perfection of their nature. Perhaps it may be ob-
served with respect to the quinary system, that this con-
dition is not complied wid), since two of the groups taken
per se appear really to form one group ; or to be much
nearer to each other than to the remaining groups. But
when it is taken into consideration that this gi*eat group,
always resolvable into two, is the typical group, and that
the two are really equal, or rather superior in value to
the three others, the objection seems to vanish.

* Hor, ^ntomolog. 518.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS* 401

With regard to all numerical systems we may observe,
that since variation is certainly one of the most universal
laws of nature, we may conclude that different numbers
prevail in different departments, and that all the num-
bers above stated as prevalent are often resolvable or re-
ducible into each other. So that where Physiologists
appear to difier, or think they differ, they frequently
really agree*

11. The Almighty Creator, when he clothed the
world that he had made with plantSj and peopled it witli
animalsj besides the maniiestation of his own glory,
appears to have had two most important purposes in
view; — the one, to provide a supply for the mutual wants
of the various living objects he had created, for the
continuance of the species, and for the maintenance
of a due proportion, as to numbers, of each kind, so
that all might subserve to the good of the whoje ; and
the other, that by them he might instruct his creature
man in such civil, physical, moral and spiritual truths,
as were calculated to fit him for his station in the visible
world, and gradually prepare him to become an inhabi-
tant of that invisible one for which he was destined.
The first of these purposes was best promoted by crea-
ting things ** according to their kind," with sexes monoe-
cious or dioecious ; that groups of beings related to each
other, and agreeing in their general structure, might dis-
charge a common function. This we see to be the case
generally in nature ; for where there is an affinity in the
structure^ there is usually an affinity in thejunction. The
last,~-or the instruction of man in his primeval state of
integrity and purity, — was best secured by placing before

VOL. IV. 2 D

402 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

him for his scnttiny a book of emblems or symbols, in
which one thing, either by its form or qualities, or both,
might represent another. If he was informed by his Crea-
tor that the works of creation constituted such a book, hy
the right interpretation of which he might arrive at spi-
ritual verities as well as natural knowledge, curiosity
and the desire of information concerning these high and
important subjects would stimulate him to the study
of the mystic volume placed before him ; in the pro-
gress of which he would doubtless be assisted by that
Divine guidance,, which even now is with those who
honestly seek the. truth. Both divines and philosophers
have embraced this opinion, which is built upon the
word of God itself*.

This last purpose of the Creator was the root of the
analogies, connecting different objects with each other
that have no real afiinity, observable in the works of
creation : so that from the bottom to the top of the scale
of being, there is many a series of analogous forms, as
well as of concatenated ones; and the intire system of
nature is representative^ as well as operative : it is a4dnd
oi Janus bifronsy which requires to be studied in two as-
pects looking different ways. To what degree of know-
ledge the primeval races of men attained after the fall,
by the contemplation and study of this book of nature,
we are no where informed ; but we learn from the highest

* The most natural and consistent interpretation of I Cor. xiii.
12, 'B'hi'TrofAsv yeiQ u^rt It* seroTFT^n sy eitytyfcuTt, is, that ** we see
now as it were in a mirror the glory of God reflected enigmatically
by the things that he has made." Comp. Rom. i. 20—. Our Sa-
viour (Luke X. 19.) calls serpents and scorpions the power of the
enemy; which can only mean that they Bxe figures or symbols of the
enemy.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 403

authority that the revelation that God thus made of him-^
self was in tune corrupted, by those that ^o^w/ng them-
selves to be mse became fools, to the grossest idolatry,
which sunk men in the lowest depths of sensuality, vice,
and wickedness^.

In no country was this effect more lamentably stri-
king than in Egypt, whose gods were all selected from
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

^ Who knows not to what monstrous gods, my friend^

The mad inhabitants of Egypt bend ?

The snake-devouring ibis these inshrine,

Those think the crocodile alone divine ;

Others where Thebes' vast ruins strew the ground,

And shatter'd Memnon yields a magic sound,
' Set up a glittering brute of uncouth shape.

And bow before the image of an ape !
' Thousmids regard the hound with holy fear,

Not one Diana :~and 'tis dangerous here

To violate an onion, or to stain

The sanctity of leeks with tooth profane.

O holy nations, in whose gardens grow

Such deities ! *' Jirv,

This species of idolatry doubtless originally resulted
from their having been taught that things in nature were
symbols of things above nature, and of the attributes and
glory of the Godhead. In process of time, while the cor-
ruption remained,^ the knowledge which had been thus
abused was Jfist, or dimly seen. The Egyptian priest-
hood perhaps retained some remains of it ; but by them
it was made an esoteric doctrine, not to be communicated
to the profane vulgar, who were suffered to regard the
vitrious objects of their superstitious veneration, not as

■ Rom. i. 20, to the end of the chapter.

2 d2

404 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

^mbolSi but as possessed of an inherent divinity : and
probably the mysteries of Isis in Egypt, and of Ceres at
Eleusis, were instituted, that this esoteric doctrine, which
was to be kept secret and sacred from the common peo-
ple, might not be lost.

But this kind of analogy is of a higher order than that
of which I am here principally to speak, — that, namely,
which the various objects of nature bear^o each other.
This, however, though of a lower rank, is essentially
connected with the other, and leads to it; for it esta-
blishes the principle, that created things are representa-
tive or symbolical : and we find, when we view them in
this light, that as we ascend from the lowest beings in
the scale of creation, we are led from one to another till
we reach the summit or centre of the whole, and are
thus conducted to the boundaries of this visible and man
terial system ; from whence we may conclude that we
ought not here to stop, but go on to something invisible
and extra-mundane, a& the ultimate object intended to be
reflected from this great speculum of creation — the Cre-
ator himself, and all those spirits, virtues, and powers
that have emanated from him.

The analogies which the various objects of the ani-
mal kingdom mutually exhibit, have for the most part
been either overlooked by modem Physiologists, or have
been mistaken for characters that indicate affinity; a cir-
cumstance that has ofien perplexed or disrupted their
systems. Dr. Virey appears to have been one of the
first who obtained a general idea of the parallelism erf*
animals in this respect* ; and M. Savigny has contrasted

« K Diet d*Hiif. Nat. xx. 484. comp. ii. 30—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 405

the Mahdtbulaia and HausteUata of the insect tribes asi
presenting analogies to each other*. But a countryman
of our own (often mentioned with honour in the course
of our correspondence), peculiarly gifted by nature, and
qualified by education and his line of study for such
speculations, and possessing moreover the invaluable op-
portunity of consulting at his ease one of the first Ento-
mological cabinets in Europe, in a work that will for
ever couple his name with the science that he cultivates*',
— ^has first taught the Naturalist the respective value and
real distinctions of the two kinds of relationship that I
am now discussing. He has opened to the philosopher,
the moralist and the divine, that hitherto closed door by
which our first parents and their immediate descendants
entered the temple of nature, and studied the symbols of
knowledge that were there presented to them : and in
addition to his labours (in numerous respects successful),
in endeavouring to trace out the natural groups of beings
connected by affinity^ has pointed out how they illustrate
each other by analogy; thus affording, as was before ob-
served*^, a most triumphant reply to the arguments of
those modern sophists, who, from the graduated scale of
affinities observable in creation, were endeavouring to
prove that animals, in tlie lapse of ages, were in fact their
own creators**.

For the more satisfactory elucidation of the subject
before us, I shall consider, first, how we are to distinguish
affinities from analogies ; and then mention some of the

' Mem, iur lei Amm, sans Vertebr. 1. 1. 20 — .

^ HorcB EntomologUMB, *= Vol. III. p. 173 — ,

<^ Ibid. p. 349. note ^

406 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

various instances of the latter that occur between insects
and other animalS| and betweeen different tribes of in-
sects themselves.

To know what characters denote affinity and what
are merely analogical, it must be kept in mind that the
former being predicated of beings in a series (whether
that. series, has its gyrations that return into themselves,
or proceeds in a right line, or assumes any other inter-
mediate direction, it matters not), it cannot be satis£u>
torily ascertained but by considering attentively the gra-
dual approximation or recession of the structure to or
from a .certain type in any point of such series. If, there-
fore, you wish to ascertain whether the characters, in
which any given object resembles other objects in certain
groups, indicate affinity or only analogy, you must first
make yourself acquainted with the common features which
distinguish the animals known to belong to that group,
— either those relating to- their structure, or to their
habits and economy. If the object under your eye par-
takes in these characters more or less, in proportion as
it approaches the type or recedes from it, the relation it
exhibits is that of affinity; but if, though it resembles
some members of it in several points of its structure, it
differs from the whole group in the general features and
characteristic marks that distinguish it, the relation it
bears to those members is merely that of analogy. Thus,
for instance, Ascalaphus italicus in its antennas, the co-
louring of its wings, and its general aspect, exhibits a
striking resemblance to a butterfly; yet a closer examina-
tion of its characters will satisfy any one that it is in quite
a different series, and has no affinity whatever to that

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 4>07

genus. A departure, bQwey«r» in only one respect from
what may be called the normal characters of its group,
does not annul the claim of any tribe of insects to remain
in it; since this very often only indicates. a retrocession
from the type^ and not a disruption of its ties of affinity*
Thus the saw-flies {Tenthredo L.) differ from the other
Hymenoptera^ though nuot in their pupae, yet more or less
in their larvae ; but. this alone cannot countervail their
agreement with that Order Jn their organs of nianduca-
tion and motion, in their ovipositor, and in the other de-
tails of their stnictilre * . '

I have on a former occasion pointed out many of the
analogies which take place between insects and other
parts of the animal kingdom, and even between insects
and the mineral and vegetable kingdoms*': I shall now
resume the subject more at large, but without recurring
to those last mentioned. . In considering the analogies
which connect insects with other animals, or which they
exhibit with respect to each other,' we may have recourse
to two methods. We may either consider them as placed
somewhere between the. two extremes of a convolving
series^ from which station we may trace these analogies
upwards and doumwards towards each limit ; or we may
conceiire them and other animals in this respect arranged
in a number of series that are parallel to each other, in
which the opposite points are analogous. The first mode
will perhaps best explain the analogies that exist between
insects and other animals, and the last those between dif-
ferent groups of insects themsdves.. I shall give an ex-
ample or two of each method, beginning with the first.

» See above, p. 373—. ' *» Vol. I. p. 7—.

408 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

There are two tribes in the animal kingdom that seem
placed in contrast to each other, both by their habits and
by their structure. One of these is carnivorous, living
by rapine and bloodshed, and cannot be rendered sub-
servient to our domestic purposes; while the other is
herbivorous or granivorous, is quiet in its habits, and
easily domesticated. Amongst insects we find the re-
presentatives of both : those of the first tribe are distin-
guished by their predaceous habits, by the open attacks,
or by the various snares and artifices which they employ
to entrap and destroy other insects. They may usually be
known by their powerful jaws or instruments of suction ;
by their prominent or ferocious eyes ; by .the swiffaiess
of their motions, either on the earth, in the air, or in the
water ; by their fraud and artifice in lying in wait for
their prey. Amongst the Coleoptera, the Predaceous
beetles, — ^including the Linnean genera Cidndela^ Cara-
busy Dyiiscusy and Gyrinus^ — are of this description; and
they symbolize those \ higher animals that by open vio-
lence attack and devour their prey: — for instance, tibe
sharks, pikes, &c., amongst the fishes; the eagles, hawks,
&c., amongst the birds ; and the whole feline genus
amongst the beasts. Similar characters give a similar
relation of analogy to the Mantidce and Ubelbdina
amongst the Orthoptera and Neuropiera. The whole
family of Arachne^ the larvae of the Myrmeleonina, &c.,
portray those animals that to ferocity add cunning and
stratagem, or suck the blood of their victims.. The my-
riapods symbolize in a striking manner the Ophidian
reptiles. Look at 201 luliiSj aiid both in its motions and
form you will acknowledge that it represents a living ser-
pent ; next turn your eyes to a centipede or ScolopendrOy

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 409

and you will find it nearly an exact model of the skele-
Um of a dead one, the flat segments of its body resem-
bling the vertebrae, its curving legs the ribs, and its ve-
nomous maxillas the poison-fangs. The great body of
the Orthopteroy the Homopterous Hemiptera^ the Lepido^
pteva, and Trichoptera, afibrd no example of Predaceous
insects. AH the analogies I have here particularized,
ascending from the insect, terminate in races of a corre-
sponding character and aspect amongst the Mammalia^
and thus lead us towards man himself, or rather to men in
whose minds those bad and malignant qualities prevail,
which, when accompanied by power, harass and lay waste
mankind ; and thus ascending from symbol to symbol, we
arrive at an animal who in his own person unites both
matter and spirit, and is thus the member both of a vi-
sible and invisible world : and we are further instructed
by these symbols,— perpetually recurring under different
forms, — in the existence of evil and malignant spirits,
whose object and delight is the corporeal and spiritual
ruin of the noble creature who is placed at the head of
the visible works of God.

The other tribe of animals that I mentioned of a milder
character, may be looked upon as represented by many
herbivorous, or not carnivorous, insects ; amongst others,
the Lamellicom beetles imitate them by their remarkable
horns, so that they wear the aspect of miniature bulls, or
deer, or antelopes*, or rams, or goats, whether these
horns are processes of the head or of the upper jaws. The

^ A remarkable imitation of an antelope's horn, in the possession
of R. D. Alexander, Esq. F.L.S., is figured in the fifth Number of the
Zoological Joumiii.

410 SYSTEM OI INSECTS*

gregarious Ifymenoptera^ someof which form pairt of our
domestic treasures, may be regarded ia some degree as
belonging to this department Fr(»n insects the ascent
upwards, with regard U} fornix is by some of the branchi-
ostegous fishes, which symbolize the horns of cattle ;. with
regard to character^ by the various species oiO/prinus and
other similar genera.-^ Whether any of the reptiles may
be looked upon as falling into this division, I am not
sufficiently conversant with.them to assert; but if any, the
ChelonianSj or tortoise and turtle tribes, are entitled to,
that distinction. Amongst the birds, the GallirKe and^n^
seresy — ^from which Orders we. derive our domestic poul-
try, whether terrestrial or aquatic, — ^and our game, form
the st^ next below the ruminants, or cattle: and we are
thusagainledtowardsman,and are symbolically instruct-
ed in those domestic and social qualities which endear us
'to each other, best promote the general welfare, and ren-
der us most like good spirits and the Divinity himself ;
of whom the perpetual recurrence of animals exhibiting
these amiable and useful qualities is calculated to im-
press upon us some notion. I might mention many more
instances of ascending analogies; as from some of the 2>t-
ptera by the parrots, to the Quadrumanes or monkey
tribes — or from some of the ItdicUe that roll themselves
into a ball, to the Armadillo; but these are sufficient to
set your mind at work upon the subject, so that you may
trace them for yourself. Nor shall I occupy your time
by pointing out how analogies may be traced from in-
sects downwards towards the lowest term in the scale of
animal life, but proceed to consider the analogies ob-
servable between insects themselves ; in which I shall fol-

SYSTEM, rOV INSECTS. 411

low the second method lately mentioned, and consider
them as arranged in parallel series.

In studying the analogies that take place between in-
sects themselves, we should always bear in mind that our
inquiry is not concerning an affinity which demands a
correspondence in various particulars that are not neces-
sary to constitute an analogy; as, for instance, that there
should be a mutual imitation in all the states of any two
insects. Wherever we discover a marked resemblance
between two perfect insects, there is a true analogy,
though their metamorphosis may differ; and where there
is not that resemblance, though the metamorphosis may
agree, there is no analogy. In fact, insects are some-
times analogous in their ^r^^ state and not in their last;
and at other times analogous in their last and not in their
Jirst; but the analog}^ is most perfect when it holds in
all their states : it then, indeed, almost approaches to an
affinity. They may also be analogous to each other in
their habits and economy^ when there is little or no re-
semblance in their yoTTw ; and, vice versa, be analogous in
their ^rw and not in their habits. So that different sets
of analogies may be assumed as foundations for different
systems. Thus Mr. MacLeay assumes the metamor^
phosis as the basis of analogy between the corresponding
Orders of Mandibtdata and Haustellata^, while M. Sa-
vigny compares xh^ perfect insects **: the result therefore
differs in some instances. I shall now lay before you
in a tabular view their plans and my own.

^ Hor, Entomolog. 456. Comp. Linn. Tram. xiv. 67—.
*» Mem. tur les Anim, sans Vertebr. I. i. ^0—,

412 sy8t£m of insects.

Savigny.

Mandibulata. Haustellata.

Neuroptera 1 f Lepidoptera

Ascalaphus J ^Papilio

Hymenoptera 1 f Diptera

Eucera i ^ Tabanm

Orthoptera "> f Homoptera

Locusta L. J i Cicada '

Aptera \ /Aphaniptera

Nirmus ) KPidex.

MacLeay.

Trichoptera Lepidoptera

Hymenoptera Diptera

Coleoptera •••• Aptera

Orthoptera Hemiptera

Neuroptera Homoptera*

K. AND S.

Coleoptera Hemiptera Leach

Orthoptera ••'• Homoptera Zi^ac^

Neuroptera Lepidoptera

Hymenoptera . • • Diptera*

In these two last columns, you see, I differ little from
M. Savigny: I merely exclude the Aphaniptera as
forming an osculant Order, and I have added the Cb-
leoptera and Yietexop^roxxsHemiptet'dtor reasons I shall
soon assign. From Mr. MacLeay I differ more widely,
which has resulted from our different ideas as to the
mode of tracing analogies ; his theory leading him to the

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 413

metamorphosis^ and mine leading me ^ to ihepetfect insect,
for the foundation of our several systems. It remains[that
1 show how each of the pairs in my columns represent
each other : but I must observe, that the analogies exhi-
bited by insects in the corresponding Orders of these
columns are not equally striking in all their respective
members ; but only in certain individual species or ge-
nera, more or less numerous, by which the nearest ap-
proach is made to the contrasted forms.

To begin with the Coleoptera and Heteropterous He-
miptera, — Both are distinguished by having an ample
proihorax^ a conspicuous scutellum, the neuration of their
wings, the substance of the hard part of their hemely*
tra, which, as in Coleoptera^ sometimes imitates horn
and sometimes leather, and is occasionally, like elytra,
lined with a hypoderma^ ; the articulation of the head
with the trunk is likewise the same in both^ : and some
Heteropterous species so strikingly resemble beetles (2iy-
giseus brevipennis Latr., &c.), having little or no mem-
brane at the end of their hemelytra, that they might
easily be mistaken for them. These circumstances prove,
I think, that this suborder is more analogous to the
Coleoptera than to the Orthoptera^ with which it agrees
in scarcely any respect but its metamorphosis. The
counterparts of this last Order indeed, instead of the
Heteropterous^ are to be sought for amongst the Homo^
pterous Hemipteroy various species of which exhibit a
most marked and multifarious analogy with numerous
Orthoptera, Many of both Orders {Cicada Latr., Lo*
custa L.), as you have heard long since, are signalized

» See above, p 373-. "» Vol. III. pp. 373, 600,

*^ Ibid. p. 413.

414 SYSTEM OF INSECTS*

by possessing the same powers of song, aa#^ produced
by an analogous organ ^ : a large propdrti^m also of both
are endued with wonderful saltetoribas powers, and their
posterior tibiae are sioMterfy armed; their legs in general
also are longitudilisDy angular, and the head in both
articulates with the trunk in the same manner^. In both
Onlers also, the upper organs of flight are most com-
m<Hily tegminaj but sometimes in both they are nearly
membranous, like wings. In Centrotm F. and Acrydium
F., the one Homoptercms and the other Orthopterausy the
front is bilobed, the eyes are small ; there are only two
stemmata between the eyes ; the pr€^<M»x is eotispi*
cuous, and behind is producted into a long scutelliform
process, under which all the parts also are analogous ;
the abdomen articulates with the trunk in the same way,
is similar in shape in both, and consists of short inoscu-^
lating segments. Some Ftdgoridce and Trtixalides agree
also in their producted front. Other analogous charac-
ters might be named between these tribes, but these are
sufficient to confirm M. Savignjr's opinion. That the
Neuroptera present analogies to the Lepidopteraj though
they differ so widely from them in their metamorphosis
and habits, is evident from the instance lately adduced
of Ascalaphtts italieusj which was described as a butterfly
by Scopoli ^ ; and many of the Libellidina, by their wings,
partly transparent and partly opaque, and by the shape
of those organs and of their bodies, imitate the Helico-
nian butterflies: and this resemblance is much more
striking than any that occurs between the perfect insects
in the Neuroptera and Homopterous Hemipfera. With

• Vol. II. p. 399-. «> Vol. III. p. 414.

*= Ent. Cam, 1 68. n. 446.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 415

regard to the Hymenoptera and Dipiera the analogy is
undisputed, and Qiust strike every beholder; and one
iTTOuld almost say it was a real affinity, were it not that
the resemblance is not only general between Order and
Order,, but that almost every Hymenopterous tribe has
its counterpart amongst the Diptera; the saw-flies*
fi>r instance, the ichneumons, the various false-wasps^,
the false-bees % the bees, the humble-bees, the ants,
&c., severally find there a representative that wears
its livery and general aspect: a circumstance which
evidently proves that it was part of the plan of the
Creator to place them in contrast with each other. Were
I to pursue this subject further, it might not be difficult
to show that were the tribes of Mandibulata or of Haus^
telUxta also arranged in columns, analogies would be di»*
coverable between their corresponding points : this
^ems to be Mr. MacLeay's opinion**.; and it is worth
your pursuing the subject further, which cannot but
prove very interesting.

But though the . general analogy of these columns is
that of Order to Order, yet individual species in each
Order sometimes find their representatives in a diffeirent
one from that with which they generally are contrasted ;
— thus some Diptera^ as Cidexy by the scales on the veins
and other parts of their wings, are analogous to Lepi--
daptera rather than Hymenoptera^ ; as is also the genus
Psychoda Latr. by its form.

We come now to the consideration of a question not

* Meigen has figured a Dipterous insect exactly resembling a Cw^
hex ; but not having his work, I cannot refer to the plate.
•» Pradoneg Latr., &c. ^ Andrena F., &c.

^ Hor, Entmnohg. 437. ' Vol. III. p. 645.

416 SYSTEM OF insects/

easy to be decided, — I mean, which Order of insects is
to have the precedency^ and which is the connecting link
that unites them to Vertebrate animals.

Linne (and Mr. MacLeay seems in this to coincide
with him) considered the Coleoptera as at the head of the
Class of insects ; De Geer thought the Lepidoptera en-
titled to that honour ; Latreille and Cuvier begin with
the Aptera : Marcel de Serre^ favours the Orthoptera^ ;
and others, on account of their admirable economy, have
made the Hymenoptera the princes of the insect world **.
If the claim to priority was to be decided by the exqui-
siteness of instincts and the benefits conferred upon the
human race, doubtless it would be in favour of the last-
mentioned insects. If the power to do mischief carried
it, and to lay waste the earth, the Orthoptera would be
entitled as much as any to the bad pre-eminence. If
beauty, and grace, and gaiety, and splendour of colours
were the great requisite, and the law enjoined, Detur
pulchrioriy — ^the Lepidoptera would doubtless win. the
throne. But if perfection and solidity of structure, as
they ought, are to regulate this point; we must, I. think,
with the illustrious Swede, assign the palm to the Ca^
leoptera. If we- consider these in all their parts, the
organs for flight only excepted, they seem more perfectly
formed and finished than the insects of any other order.
But which of the Coleopterous tribes are entitled to the
precedency ? Linne placed the Lamellicom beetles at
the head of the order, beginning with the Dyndstida^
probably led by some characters which seem to connect
these with the Branchiostegous fishes. In this he was
followed by Fabricius. But Latreille and most modem

» Menu du Mus. 1819. 136. >» Rifferschw. de Ins. GenUaL9,

SYSTEM Oy INSECTS, 417

V

Entomologists have b^un with Cicmdela L. and the
other Predaceous beetles* I am not- certain what are
Mr. MacLeay's sentiments oh ;thi8 subject; but from
what he says in his Annuhsa Javanica^ it does net ap*
pear that he is a convert to the latter opinion. Bulk
and strength seem the most striking characteristics of
the former tribe, which represent the cattle or riimmants
amongst Verjtebrate adimals.-^— Strength united with agi*
lity and a considerable portion of grace and symmetry
evidently confers a degree ofpre-emiiience upon the lat*
ter^~ symboljbdng the feliiie race, which seems to throw
no snmll weight nito their scale. '

There are two Classes of Vertebrate animals with
which inisects mity appear to claim kindred. The Jtshes,
and the reptiles. Fishes in their fins exhibit no small
resemblance to insects ; the pectoral and ventral ones
rq>resenling their aims and legs, and the dorsal ones
their wings : Pegasus Draco in this last respect is not
unlike a butterfly^. In some genera {OstracioHf Pegd'^
sus, &C.}, tike insects the animal is covered with a hand
sbdl or crust, fonned by the union of its scales. The
oral cirrhi of n^my fishes seem analogous to the palpi
of insects ; and in some a pair longer tbim the rest re*
present their mUenme^. Another circumstance in which
insects and fishes correspond, is the wonderful variety of
ferms, often in the greatest degree eccentric, that occurs
in both Classes. Some of the cyclostomous fishes, as
Ammoccetus Dum., Gastrohranchus Bloch, are supposed
to connect the fishes with the Jnmdosa, by means of the

* AnnuloSy Javan, 1. 1.

«» iV. Diet. d^Hkt. Nat, xxv. 116—. xxWi, t. M. 8./. 1.

"^ Hso Hut. Nat. 63. Curm 1. Jun^ r.

VOL. IV. 2 E

4*18 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Annelida as ah osculant Class ^^ which Mn MacXicay re*
gards as the passage to the Chilopoda^: his Mandibulata
he considers as passing into the Anoplura by means of
some osculant Order as yet unknown ^. But I must con-
fess I can see no good ground for this last transition : — •
the Anoplura appear much more nearly related to Psocus,
especially by the apterous species Psocus pulsatorius^,
than to any Coleopterous insect But having stated these
opinions, I shall leave you to draw your own conclusions,
as the question is still perplexed with many difficulties. I
am ready to admit that some Vertebrates approach near
to the Annelida; but that it is through them alone that
they are connected with insects, is not at present clear.

With regard to reptiles^ they seem to be connected
with insects by- several characters. In the ChelonianSf
the skeleton merges in the external carapace or
shell ; the Ophidians change their skin like larvae ;
the Batrackians undergo metamorphoses ; some of the
Saurians also have their changes ; and the Draco vdlans
has wings somewhat analogous to those of insects^.
Were I to be asked what Order of insects could -con-
nect with reptiles, I should point to the Orthoptera^ es-
pecially Gryllus Li,, which by their noise and saltato-
rious powers not a little resemble frogs; and the larvas
of some strikingly imitate their form^ : and of others
even that of a lizard s. But these resemblances, after all,
may only indicate analogies.

" N. Diet. d*Hut. Nat. xxvii. 235. Hor. Entomolog. 203.
: " J^. 281-. ^ lind. 354, 390, 397.

<* This insect, except in its antennse, so nearly resembles a iyTiV.
mtiSy that it might be mistaken for one. See Coquebert lUmtr,
Icon. \. tAu f. 14. • Vol. III. p. 592.

' Fuessl. Archiv. t. \\\.f. 5. « Stoll Saut. de Pass. t. xx. b. f. 79.

LETTER XLVIIl.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

After the very general idea that I have attempted to
embody for you of the ifi^s^£m> of Insects ; of the groups
in which nature has arranged them, and tbeii* mutual
relations ; it will not be out of place, if I next state to
you what has been effected by Entomologists towards
reducing them to order : or, in other words, if I give you
some account of the yoxiovis Methods and Systems*^ be*
ginning with the earliest, that have appeared and had
their day, which will include a history of the progress of
our science from its commencement to its present era.
. In writing the history of any science, two modes pre-
sent theihselves* We may either give a chronological re-^
view of all the circumstances and publications connected
vrith it ; or content ourselves with a rapid survey, dwell-
ing only on the principal epochs, and those lights of jlie
science who by their immortal labours gave birth to
them. The latter is that on every account best suited
to our present purpose, which I shall therefore here
adopt.

There seem to . me to be sp)en principal epochs intp
which the History of Entomology may be divided; vi«,

* See above, p. 355—. ,
2 E 2

420 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

1. The Era of the Ancients. 2. The Era of the revival
of the science after the darkness of the middle ages.
S» The Era of Swammerdam and Ray, or of the MetU'-
morphotic System, 4?, The Era of Linn^ or of the Alary
System. 5. The Era of Fabricius, or of the Maxillary
System. 6. The Era of Latreille, or of the Eclectic
System. And 7. The Era of MacLeay, or of the Quinary
System. All of these appear to form important points,
or resting-places, in the progress of the science towards
its acme ; and of each of these I shall now proceed to
give you a brief account.

1. The Era of the Ancients. To ascertain what atten-
tion was paid to insects in the earliest ages, we must
have recourse to the most ancient of records, the Old
Testament. In this sacred volume we are informed that
after the Creation God brought the creatures to Adam
that he might name them*. Now the first man, in his
unimpaired state of corporeal, mental, and spiritual
soundness, under the divine guidance doubtless imposed
upon them names significant of their qualities or struc-
ture ; which according to Plato was a work above human
wisdom, and on account of which the ancient Hebrews
deduced that Adam was a philosopher of the highest
endowments^. Whether on this great and interesting
occasion he gave names to individual species, or only to
natural groups, does not clearly appear. But probably
as they were created, so were they brought before him
** According to their kinds*."

Subsequently Moses will be thought to have possessed
no ordinary knowledge of insects, if we suppose, as the

* Genes, ii. 19 — . •* Fol, Syn&ps, on Gene$, ii.

"^ Genes, i. 25.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 421

ingenious remarks of Professor Lichtenstein* render
probable, that be distinguishes as clean insects the Fabii-
cian genera Gryllus^Locusta^ TruxaliSitnid ^^r^^o, which
a person unobservant of these animals would have con-
founded together. This discrimination presupposes this
knowledge of their general characters, not only in the
Jewish lawgiver, but also in the people themselves to
whom the precept was addressed, to whom it would
otherwise have been de ignotis.

Allusion is made in Holy Writ to insects of almost
every one of the modem Orders^. They are represented
as employed divinitus sometimes to annoy the enemies
of the Israelites, and at others to punish that people
tbem3elves when they apostatized from their God. The
prophets frequently introduce them as symbols of ene*
mies that lay waste or oppress the church : as the j^ of
tfats Ethiopians or Egyptians; the bee of the Assyrians ;
and the loaist of the followers of Mahomet and other
similar destroyers^. That Solomon, amongst other ob-
jects to the investigation of which his divinely inspired
wisdom directed him, did not deem insects, thos^ ^^ Little
things upon the earth^," unworthy of his attention, we
know from Scripture' ; but as his physical writings are
lost, we are ignorant whether he treated of their natural
anrsmgement, their economy and history, or of the in*
stnicdon they afford analogically considered. Where

* Linn, Trans, iv. 51—. See Levit, xL 20 — ,

*> The Neuroptera appears to be the only Order not so signalized.
It is worthy of notice that insects are .usually noticed genericaJfy
and not specificaUi/ in Scripture. On the insects of Scripture see
Bochart Hierozeic, ii. 1. iv. ^ Isai, vii. 18. Joel ii. Rev, ix. 3.

^ Prov, XXX. 24—. • 1 Kings iv. 33.

423 HISTORY OF ENTOAfOLOQY*

he has reFerred to thehi incidentally^ it is generally with
this latter view.

If we turn from the word and people of God to the
Lofoers qfmsdom (as they modesdy styled themselves) of
the heathen world, and their writings ; we shall discern
amongst them a great light shining, the beams of which
illuminate even our own times. In the illustrious Stagy-
rite we recognize — ** The father of philosophy, at least
of our philosophy, who, rising superior to the darkness
in which he lived, darted his penetrating glance through
all nature, and established principles which a long course
of ages of inquiry have but confirmed. With Aristode
begins the real History of science : and how much so-
ever he may have erred upon particular points, the great-
ness of his conceptions and the justness of his ideas, on
the whole entitle him to our high veneration. His la-
bours in the investigation of the Animal Kingdom have
laid the foundation of the knowledge we now possess^.''
This language of the learned President of the Linnean
Society is particularly applicable to what this great and
original genius has effected in Entomology. We have
seen upon a former occasion^, that Linn^ himself had
not those precise ideas of the limits of the Class Insecta^
which Aristode so many centuries before him had
adopted. In stating the obligations of Entomology to
this true sgavant^ I shall begin by laying before you a
tabular view of what may be called his system, as far as
I have been able to collect it from his works, especially
his History of Animak.

V

• Xjinn,, Trans, i. 5. * Vol. II f. p. 6.

UIStOBY. OF ENTOMOLOGY.

42$^

f Pterota vel
Ptilota*

.1

Colebptera*^.

Pedetica *= Orthopiera taltatoria Ltiir,^
Astomatass HemipteraLairJ
Psychse. =' Lepidoptera',

^ rma.]OT&ssNieuroptera L. Ortho-

Tetraptera J ptera cursoriaLditr,^?

l^Opisthocentras^mcfnoptora '.

rminorassikfttjco, THpula, &c.
^ Diptera^ J Emprosthocentra == Culex, Sto-

L moxyi^ TabanvMy &c.

Pterota simuM Myrmex ^Formica \^
et Aptera^ <^ Pygolampis=?2y<i7np^m L.

.Aptera*.

It may be further stated, that Aristotle perceived also
the distinction between the Mandibulata and Haustellata
of modern authors : for he observes, that some insects
having teeth are omnivorous ; while others, that have
only a tongue, are supported by liquid food^ He ap-
pears to have regarded the Hymenoptera^ or some of
them, as forming a third subclass ; since he clearly al-
ludes to them, when he says that many have teeth, not
for feeding, but to help them in fulfilling their instincts".

From the above statement it will appear that this great
philosopher had no contemptible notion,-— though he has
only distinguished three of them as larger groups by ap-
propriate names, — of the majority of the Ordersof Insects

^ Aristotle calls winged insects Pterota when he would distinguish
them from those that are apterous and PtUota when he contrasts
them with birds. (Comp. Hist, Anim, I. iv. c. 1. with I. i. c. 5.) Some-
times he calls birds thus contrasted Schkopterot and insects Holo^
ptera, De Amnu Incest, c. 10.

* HiU. Anim. L iv. c. 1. « Ibid. " Ibid. 1. i. c. 5.

« Ibid. 1. iv. c. 7. ' Ibid. « Ibid. 1. v. c. 19.

»» Ibid. 1. i. c. 5. * Ibid, and 1. iv. c. 7. * Ibid.

, ' Ibid. 1. viii. ell. ™ Gr. Ot; r^t^hns X*?'' ^X^' ©^©"T^f «XX*

9PiKiiig. Aa«}j means Strength of mind. Fortitude, Strenuousness, also
Help : — it here probably signifies their strenuous use of their oral
organs in fulfilling their instincts. De Partib. Anim. 1. iv. c. 5.

424 HISTORY OV SNTOM0LO&Y.

at present admitted* His Cokcptera^ Psyc/ue, and 2)?<-
ptera are evidently such. His idea o{ Hemiptera seems
taken solely from the Cicada or TeUix : but the man-
ner in which he expresses himself concerning it, as
having no mouth, but fiif nished instead with a lingui-
form organ resembling the proboscis of Dipteral proves
that he regarded it as the type of a distinct group. Since
he considers the saltatorious Orthoptera as forming such
a group, it is probable that he included the cnrsorious
ones with the Neuroptera in his majora section of Te-
traptera ; and the resemblance of many of the Mantidte
to the Neuroptera is so great, that this mistake would not
be wonderful. His division of the Diptera is quite ar-
tificial.

How far Aristotle's ideas with regard to genera and
species attained to any degree of precision, is not easily
ascertained : in other respects his knowledge of insects
was more evident. As to their anatomy^ he observes
that their body is usually divided into three primary seg-
ments,— headj trunks and abdomen; that they have an
intestinal canal, — in some straight and simple, in others
contorted,— -extending from the mouth to the anus; that
the Orthoptera have a ventricle or gizzard ^ He had
noticed the drums of Cicadfh &i^d that the males only
are vocal. Other instance^^of the accurate observation
of this great man might be adduced, but enough has
been said to justify the above encomiums. His princi*
pal error was that of equivocal generation.

Little is known with regard to the progress of other
Greek Naturalists in entomological science.. It ap-

» Hitl, Anim. I. iv c. 7. ^ /^-

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOOT. 425

pears probable, from an epithet by which Hedod diis-
tinguishes the spider-— 0ir^;/^»g ^9 that the fact of these
insects traversing the air was at that time no secret.
ApoUodoruSy as we learn from Pliny ^, was the first mo*
ncgrapher of insects, since he wrote a treatise upon scor-
pions, and described nine species. But like many other
Zoologists, by mistaking analogy for affinity, he has in-
cluded a 'mnged insect, probably a Panorpoy amcmgst
his scorpions. From the time of Aristotle, however, to
Pliny, no writer is recorded, with the exception of those
before alluded to^, that appears to have attended mudi
to insects. They are indeed incidentally noticed by Theo-
phrastus, Dioscorides, Virgil, Ovid, &c., but without
any material addition to the stock of entomological
knowledge bequeathed to us by the Stagyrite. Even
Plinjr's.vast compendium, as it professed to be, of the
natural history of the globe, was in many respects little
more than a compilation from that great philosopher.
Still, however, though he does not appear to have paid
much practical attention to insectSj-^^which indeed, con-
sidering the extent of his views, was scarcely to be ex-
pected,-^yet as a guide to the then state of entomologi>-
cal knowledge, and as an advocate for the study, which
in the. exordium of his eleventh book he has so elo-
quently and wilh so much animation defended from the
ssdsrepresentations of ignorance, Pliny has conferred a
lasting obligation on the science. The last zoological
writer of note was iEUian, who amongst other animals
eftea mentions insects. He has, however, few original
observations. One was, that scorpions are viviparous*^.

* Gr« Asgff/9ro'r)iro< a^etxpn. Dies. lin. 13. ^ Hitt. Nai.\,ia, c. 25.

* Vol. 1. p. 485. Vol, II. p. Igl— . * J> Nrdur. Animal. 1, vi. c. 30,

426 HlgTORY OF £NTOAI0L06y«

From him we learn incidentally that artificial flies were
sometimes used by Grecian anglers*.

2* T^e.Era of the Revival of the Science. Frcan the
time of Pliny and .^Blian 1400 years rolled away, in which
scarcely any thing was done or attempted for Entomology
or Natmral History in general. Dmring that long night
. the glimmer of only one &int luminary appeared to make
a short and feeble twilight In the middle of the thir-
teenth century Albertus Magnus (so called from his &-
mily name of Grroot, and justly, if incredible labour
could entitle a man to the appellation,) devoted otie out
of twenty-one folio volumes to Natural History* In this
work he professes not so much to give his own opinicms,
as those of the Peripatetic philosophers *'. He occasion-
ally, however, relates the result of observations made by
himseli^ which prove him to have been no inattentive
student of nature. He mentions a voyage that he made
for the purpose of collecting marine animals, and that
he found of them ten different tribes or genera, and se-
veral species of each. Amongst these he particularizes
the Cephalopoda^ the Crustacea^ the testaceous MoUusca^
and some of the Badiata and Acritay &c. ^ He gives
a very correct account of the pitfalls of Myrmeleon. In-
sects he distinguishes, excluding the Crustacea^ by the
denomination ofAnulosa {Annulosa\ which he appears
to employ as a knami term^. He also calls them
worms, describing butterflies as joying worms, flies asjb^
worms, spiders as spider-^ooorms j and what is still more
extraordinary, the toeui/ aiid the^ro^, which he includes
amoug^this Anulos(ifhecsllsquadrupedrWorms^\\ Though

* De Nlatur, Anirnal, 1. xv. c. 1. ^ Opera yu 683.

• IM. 153- . *» Ibid. 154, 233, 265, &c. « Ibid. 676, 679, 680.

HII^TORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 427

it may appear so absurd to speak of these animals ai^ in-
sects, yet he had perhaps a deeper and more philoso|)hi*
cal reason for this than we may at first be disposed to
give him credit for. This would be the case if he se*
parated these from the other reptiles and placed them ^
amongst insects on account of their metamorphosesy mis*
taking' perhaps an analogical character for one of affi*
nity ^. Some of the Annelida^ as Filaria and Ijumbricus '',
he also regarded as insects. I cannot gather from his
desultory pages that he had any notion of a systematical
arrangement oi^ his Amdosa, '

After the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in
the middle of the fifteenth century, the light of learning,
kindled by those of its professors who escaped firoin that
ruin, appeared again in the West. The Greek language
then b^an to be studied universally; and in consequence
of the coeval invention of the art of printing, various
editions of the great works of the ancients were publish-
ed : amongst the rest, those of the fathers of Natural
History. From the perusal of those works, the love of
the sciences of which they treated revived in the West,
and the attention of scientific men began to direct itself
to the consideration and study of the works of their
Creator. In the latter part of that century, a work
entitled the Book of Nature appeared in the German
language, in which animals and plants were treated of
and rudely figured ; as they were likewise most misera-
bly in Cuba's Ortus Sanitatisy published in 1485. In this
work insects and Crustacea were described under the
three different denominations of Animals, Birds, and
Fishes ; so that but little profit was at first derived from

* Sec above, p. 418. ** Opera vi. 68^—.

428 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the writings of Aristotle, Invertebrate animtds not bdng
then even honoured with

*' A local babitation and a name."

This unpromising and apparently hopeless state of the
science proved, however, the dawn of its present meridian
brightness.

The first attempt at a separate and systematical ar-
rangement of insects subsequent to the times of Aristotle,
was made in the ponderous volumes of Ulysses Aldro-
vandus, who, disregarding the Stagyrite, arranged bi-
sects according to the medium they inhabit, as you will
see in the subjoined table :

{"Pedata
rTerrestria i
^ I I Apoda.

r Membra- ^^"'^"^
fAnelytra i nacea iNonFa-
I „ . C vifica

Elytrota.

I Elytrota. LFarmosa.

LAptera { ^:^

^Aquatica ^
I
LApoda.

This artificial and meager systein, which mixed insects
Vith Annelida, was adopted by Charlton and other au-
thors ; and even in the eighteenth century had a patron
of great eminence, who, endeavouring to improve upon
it, has rendered it still more at variance with nature and
Aristotle : I mean the celebrated Vallisnieri, to whom
in other respects, though in this he fell behind his age^
the science was under great obligations. He divides
insects into, 1. Those that inhabit vegetable substances

HrSTORT OF ENTOMOLOGY. 429

liyiiig or dead* 2. Those that inhabit any kind oijluid
and in any state* 3. Those that inhabit any earthy or
mineral substance deadboneSy or shelh. And 4. Those
that inhabit livir^ animals *•

The work that is usnaliy called Moiifief s TkiairuHf
Inseettniim was produced in the present era, and was the
fimit of die successive labours of several men of talent*
Dr* Edward Wotton and the celebrated Ck>nrade Oes-
ner laid tlie foundatjion ; whose manuscripts fidling into
the hands of Dr. Thomas Penny, — an eminent physician
and botanist of the Elizabethan age^, much devoted to
the study of insects, — ^he upon this foundation meditated
raising a superstructure which should include a complete
history of these animals ; and with this view he devoted
the leisure hours of fifteen years of his life to the study
of every work then extant that treated of the science
either expressly or incidentally, and to the description
and figuring of such insects as he could procure : but be-
fore he had reduced his materials to order, in 1589 he
was snatched away by an untimely death. His unfinished
manuscripts were purchased at a considerable price by
Moutifet, a contemporary physician of singular learning^,
who reduced them to order, improved the style, added
new matter, and not less than 150 additional figures ; and
thus having prepared the work for the press,* intended
to dedicate it to Queen Elizabeth^. Fate, however,
seemed still to fix>wn upon the undertaking, for before
he could commit his labours to the press he also died,
and the work remained buried in dust and obscurity till

* Esperienz, ed Osserv. i. 4S— .

^ Pvlteoefs SketcheM of Botany in England^ i. 86.

€ Tkeair. Insect EpUf. Bed. i. •> Ibid.

430 HISTORY OF JCNTOMOLO&Y.

it fell into the hands of Sir Theodore Mayerne, baron.
d'Aubone, one of the court physicians in the tiine of
Charles I., who at length published it, prefixing a Dedi-
cation to Sir William Paddy, baronet, M.D., in 1634;
and it was so well received that an English translation ap-
peared twenty-four years afterwards. The work thus re-
peatedly rescued from destruction was indisputably the
most complete entomological treatise that had then ap-
peared. And though the arrangement (in which there is
scarcely any attempt at system) is extremely defective, the
figures very rude, often incorrect, and soH»time9 atooge-
ther falsey-'-^yet as an introduction to the study of insects
its value at that day must have been very considerable ;
and as a copious storehouse of ancienrentomological lore,
it has not even at .present lost its utility.

One of the most remarkable works of the era we are
upon was published at Lignitz in the year 1603, by
Caspar Schwenckfield, a physician of Hirschberg, under
the title of Theriotrophium Silesits. This was probably
the first attempt at a Fauna that ever was made. In it
animals are divided into quadrupeds, reptiles, birds,
fishes, and insects. The Crustacea^ Molluscaj and Zoo^
phytes^ are included under fishes. He says of the Spon-^
gue that they are moved by animalcula which inhabit
them^. Did he borrow this observation from Aristotle,
or was it made by himself^ ? It is singular that Linn^
should never allude to this work. Goedart, who belongs
also to this era, b stated to have spenj: forty years of his

• Theriotroi^. SUes, 455. >> Aristotle {Hist. Anim.

\. i. c. 1.) says, ** The sponge seems to have some sensation: as a
proof, it is not easily plucked up, unless, so they say, the attempt it
concealed."

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY; 481

life in attending to the proceedings of insects *. But after
this long study, his principal use to the science was the
improvement he effected in the drawing and engraving of
them5— for his figures, though sometimes incorrect and
sometimes fabulous, were far superior to those of his
predecessors.

3. The Era of Swammerdant and Ray^ or of the Me-
tamorphotic System. The great men whose names are
here united, as th^ werecotemporary, so they agreed
in founding their respective systems of insects on the
same bask. To the former, however, is due the mmt
of being the first who assumed the metamorphoses of these
animals as the basis of a natural arrangement of them ;
upon which the latter, in conjunction with his lamented
friend Willughby, erected that superstructure which
opened the door for the present improved state of the
science. Swammerdam's system may be thus expressed
in modem language :

Class i. Metamorphosis complete'* as 4p^tfr« L/

. _ , - ( Orthoptera, Hemipterd,
"• senncomplete ] LibMuUna, SpieLri^'.

C Coleoptera, Hiftnenoptera,
C incomplete < part of Neuroptera and
111, , ■ , J ( Diptera^,

^ obtected Leptdoptera*,

«^i. *^ i Ichneumones minuH L.*

It was a great point gained in the science to introduce

* Lister's Goedart, Pr€Bf. ii.

* See Vol. I. p. 65 — , where these terms are explained.
^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 38—. «• Ibid. 92—.
' TWrf. 119— . ' Ibid. ii. 1—. « Ibid. 31—.
•» Ibid. 30. ^

1

432 HI9TORT OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the consideration of the metamorphosis, and to employ
it in the extrication of the natural system : for though
when taken by itself it will, as in the table just given,
lead to an artificial arrangement, it furnishes a very use-
ful clue when the consideration of insects in their perfect
state is added to it The tables contained in the JVo-
legamena to Ray's Historia Insectarum divide insects
into those which undergo no change of form, and those
which change their form. The arrangement of the
former (^/ttrraftog^cora) was made by WiHughby, who
subdivided them into Apoda and Pedata* As the only
insects included in the former section were the grubs of
CEst-ij the remainder being Annelida^ they need not be
included in our table. I have endeavoured to compress
these tables into as small a space as possible, by using
the Lmnean terms for metamorphosis, imd reducing
'Ray's tribes of Orthoptera^ HemipterOy and Neurqptera
to their modem denominations.

Ray details at considerable length the various tribes
belonging to the four classes of metamorphosis establish-
ed by Swammerdam^. Most of his tribes indicate na-
tural groups of greater or less value : but some of his
larger groups are artificial, as you will see by the mere
inspection of the table.

■ Hisf. Ins, Prolegom. ix. —

■11

nil

ll I

!!

IIJ illMl I

iff? ijigatS I %§

4S 4 ,-1 JS

I'l. Ill S'i

a lis i-9^s gi

4

434 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

This era produced several great and original geniuses,
who enriched the science with a vast increment of real
knowledge. The illustrious Zoologists whose names it
bears,-^the one by his dissections and anatomical re-
searches, and the other by his concise and well drawn
descriptions of numerous insects, by various interesting
observations <hi their manners and characters, and by
the purity of his latinity, — contributed greatly to its pro-
gress towards perfection. Leeuwenhoek also, the com-
patriot of Swammerdam, and Hooke of Ray, amongst
other objects submitted to their powerful microscopes,
did not neglect insects. — To the former we are indebted
for the remarkable discovery that the flea belongs to
those that undergo a metamorphosis. Ray had besides
two coadjutors whose names ought not to be forgotten,—
Willughby and Dr« Martin lister. The former is cha-
racterized by his lamenting IHend as one of the pro-
foundest of naturalists, as well as one of the most amia-
ble and virtuous of men. What advantage Entomology
would have reaped from his labours may be inferred
from the eminent services that he rendered. that science,
amongst other branches of Zoology, during his short
life. It appears from Ray^s Letters^, that he drew up a
history of insects and exsat^uia^ which probably formed
the groundwork of the posthumous Histdria Insectortan
of that author; concerning which he says, ^^ The work
which ^ have now entered upon is indeed too great a
task for me : I rely chiefly on Mr. Willughby*s dis-
coveries and the contributions of friends^." And in-
deed Willughb/s name and initials occur so frequently
in that work, that it may be esteemed their joint pro-
• PhUos. Lett. &c. 141. / «• I6id. 343.

HISTOnV OF ENTOMOLOGY* 435

duction. Lister by his various writings elucidated many
points relating to insects ; and he may be regarded as the
first modem who observed that spiders can sidl in the
air. But the most important of his works, and that on
which his fame as an Entomologist is principally founded,
is his admirable treatise De Araneis j in which his sy-
stematic arrangement of these animals leaves far behind
all former iattempts, and rivals that of the best modern
Aracfanologists* His specific descriptions are drawn
with a precision till then unloidwn ; and each is headed
by a short definition of the sp^ies, which he CfiQls the
Tiiulus, synonymous wit^ the Nomen speci/leum of Linn^,
whose canon of twelve words it rarely exceeds.

One of the most inrpbrtant events bf this era was the
complete exposure and telirtation of tUe absurd doctrine
of equivocal generation, which had maintained its ground
in the schools of philosophy fifom the tiiifie of Aristotle*
Our own immortal Harvey was the first who dared to con-
trovert this irrational liifeory : and his dictum — Omnia ex
ovo — ^was copiously discussed and completely established
by two of the ablest physiologists that Italy has produced,
Redi and Malpighi*

Previously to the publication of the Historia Insecto*
rum, no other works of endneice, with the exception of
Madam Merian's beautiful illustration bf the metam,or««
phosis of the insects of Surinam^ made their appearance:
but in the ihtervi^I bf twenty-five yea^s, which elapsed
between the publication of that work and of l^inn^'s
firstouliineof his Sysiemd Naturce, Entomologists became
more nunierous and active. In England the pious and
learned author of the Physico and Astro^Thedtogy was
celebrated for the assiduity with which he studied in-

2 F 2

436 HISTORY OF Ein'OMOLOGY.

sects; and in the former of these works has concentrated
a vast number of interesting observations connected with
theur anatomy and history. No Englishman contributed
more to the progress of Natural History, both as a writer
and collector, than that disinterested physician and na-
turalist Sir Hans Sloane, whose extensive and valuable
library and well-stored cabinets formed the original nu«
cleus of the present vast collection of the British Museum.
Amoiigst other departments, that of insects was not over*
looked by him ; and it is to be regretted that those which
he had accumulated have either perished from neglect
or are not accessible. Other Entomologists were emi-
nent at this period in Britain. The principal of these
were Petiver, Dale (to whom Ray bequeathed his collec-
tion of insects), Bobart, Bradley, and Dandridge ; the
last of whom, as Bradley tells us, delineated and de-
scribed 140 species of spiders.

I must not omit here to observe that our Royal So-
ciety, the origin of which took place in this era, com-
municated a new and powerful impulse to the public mind
in favour of Physical Science, and greatly accelerated
the progress of Natural History. It acted not only as
a centre of excitement which stimulated to exertion, but
also as a focus to collect the scattered rays of light before
they were dissipated. Insulated observations in every
department of nature were thus preserved; and commu-
nications from the most eminent naturalists in various
parts of Europe ornamented its Transactions. So that
from the establishment of this illustrious Society, the
triumphant march of Physical Science of every kind to-
wards its acme may be dated.
. 4. Era ^Linne, or of the Alary System. We are now

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 4S7

arrived at that period in the history of Natural Know-
ledge, especially of Entomology, in which it received that
form, with respect to its general outline, which, a!!midst'
many lesser mutations, has been preserved ever since.
Swammerdam had altogether deserted the system of
Aristotle, and Ray mixed it with that of his predecessor.
But a brilliant star soon appeared in the North ^, which
was destined to be the harbinger of a brighter day than
had ever before illuminated the path of the student of
the works of God. The illustrious philosopher whose
name distinguishes this new era, imbibed a taste for
'EtDtoxaology almost as early as for Botany^; and though
the latter became his favourite, and absorbed his prin-
cipal attention, he did not altogether neglect the former.
In the first edition of his Systems Naturce^ published in
1735, and contained in ojAy fourteen folio pages % he
b^an to arrange the three kingdoms of nature after his
own conceptions. But this initiatory sketch, as might
be expected, was very imperfect ; and with respect to
insects, instead of an improv^nent upon his predecessors,
was extremely inferior to what Ray had effected ; for he
puts into one Order (to which he gives the name of
Angioptera) the Lepidoptera^ Neuraptera^ Hymenoptera^
and Diptera. In this work, however. Generic Characters
were first given. In successive editions he continued to
improve upon this outline : in ihe fourth he finally set-
tled the number and denominations of his Orders ; and in
the twelfUi (uniting the Orthoptera^ which he had at

' Ray died in 1705, and Linne was born in 1707.

•» When a boy he attempted to introduce wasps and bees into his
father's garden, to the great annoyance of the old gentleman.— Stoe*
ver*8 Life of lAnrucw, 4, ' Ibid, 75.

4S8 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

first considered as of a CoUapterous type, to the Henii^
pUra) also their limits* His system, being founded upon
the absence or presence and characters of the organs
for flight, is in some degree a republication of the Ari^
stotelian, and may be called the Alary System.

1^

^ ^ . ( crustaqepus with a straight suture Coleoptera • • • 1.
\ oupenor ^ semicrustacecwis, ihcumbent . . . Eennptera • . 2.
J C ixid[)ricated with scales LepUoptera • 3.

All \ ™«„br.no«s-A«u, \^^- j J-^J^' J

.9. Poisers in the place of the posterior pair . . , . Dtptera • • . • 6.
^ 0. Or without either wings or elytra Aptera 7*

In cotisidering this tabl% it must strike every one ac*
qualnted with the subject, that although the assumption
of a single set of organs whereon to build a system can
scarcely be expected to lead to one perfectly natur?,!,
yet that the majority of the groups here given as Orders
merit that chai^acter. The second indeed and the lasl
require further subdivision, and concerning the Jburth
no satisfactoiy conclusion has yet been drawp^ With
regard to his series of the Orders, it is. mostly artificial.
Linn£ l^as the advantage of all his predecess<Nrs in giving
clearer definitions of his Orders^ and iii. their nomencla-
ture; in which he has followed the path first trodden
by Aristotle.

One of his most prominent excellencies, which led
the way more than any thing else to a distinct Joiow*
ledge of natural objects, was his giving definitions of his
genera, or the groups that he distinguished by that name^
since all preceding writers had merely made them known
by the imposition of a name. His generic characters
of insects were of two kinds : A shorter, containing the
supposed essential distinction of the genus, given at the

ihSTORV OF ENTOMOLOGY. 4S9

head of the Class ; aod another, generally longer, and in*
eluding nm-essentialSf given at the head of the Genus.
The first he denominated the essential^ aiid tlie latter the
Jhctitious or artificial character. He did not do for insects
what he did for Botany, — dmw up what he has called
the nattirdl character of a genus,' whichincluded both the
others, and noticed every other generic distinction*.

The older Naturalists used to treasure in th^r memor
lies a short description of each species, by which when
they wished to speak or write of it they made it known*
Thus, in speaking of tiie common Iady-«bird they would
call it ^^ the Coccinella with red coleoptra^ having seven
black dots/' This enunciation of any object was at
first called its Tide ( Titulus)^ and afterwards its Speci*^
fie Name {Nbmen specificum)^ and by Linn6 was restricted
to t(i)elve words ^. But as the number of species increased
to remember each definition was no eai^ task ; that he
might remedy this inconvenience, he invented what is
called the Trivial Name {Nomen triviale), which ex-
pressed any species by a single term added to its generic
appellation, as Coecinelia septem^^pimctaia; and thereby
conferredalastingbenefitonNaturalHistory. T&sconve*
nient invention has rendered it less necessary to restrictthe
Nomen specificmn to twelve words: it is desirable, ho wevei^
that the definition of a species should be as short as pos-
sible, and contain only its distinctive characters. In his
definitions and descriptions Linn^ was often very happy ;
but sometimes, in studying to avoid prolixity, he fin^gets

Horace's hint,

** Brevia esse laboro

Obscurus fio — "

" Linn. Philos, Botan. n. 87, 188, 189.

*• See above, p. 333, n. 5. ^ lind. ii. 291.

440 UISTOR¥ OF ENTOMOLOGY*

and makes his definitions of sp^ies, without adding a
description, so extremely short as to suit equally well
perhaps a dozen different insects. The minor groups
into which he has divided some of his Orders and Ge-
nera are sometimes natural, sometimes artificial. Those
of the Coleoptera^ from characters drawn from their an-
tenner (as is evident from his arrangement of the g^iera
in that Order), are of the former description; while
those of his Aptera are more naturaL The genera that
he has most happily laboured in this respect are his
Hemipterous ones of Gtyllus^ Cicada^ and CimeXf and all
his Lepidoptera. He bad such a tact for discovering nnf*
tural groups in general, that in him it seems almost to
have been intuitive*

But in no respect were the labours of Lum6 more be*
neficial to the science and to Zoology in general, than
when he undertook to describe the animals of his ovm
country. His Fauna Suecica is an admirable exemplar,
which ought to stimulate the Zoologists of every comitry
to make it one of their first objects that its animal pro-
ductions shall no longer remain unregistered and un-*
describe. Botanists have almost every where been di«
ligent in effecting this with respect to plants, but other
branches of Natural History have been more neglected.
In his Systema 'Naturae Linne attempted this for all the
productions of our globe. The idea was a vast one; and
the execution, though necessarily falling far short of i(^
did him infinite honour : and in it he has laid a founda-
tion for his successors to build upon till time shall be
no more.

Such were the services rendered to Entomology by
the labours of the immortal Swede ; services so extensive
as well as eminent, that had they been the fruit of a whole

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 44*1

life devoted to this single object, they would have en-
titled him to a high rank amongst the heroes of the sci-
ence. But how much more astonishing are they when
conside;*ed but as gleanings from his hours of relaxation,
snatched from labours infinitely greater, the produce, as
he himself tells us, of moments consumed by others in
^ venationibus, confabulationibus, tesseris, chartis, lusi-
bus, compotationibus'." It is not so much in original
discovery that the merits of Linn^ lie, — though consi-
dered in this view they are pre-eminent, — as in the un-
rivalled skill with which he sifted the observations of his
predecessors, separating the ore from the dross, and con-
centrating scattered rays of light into one focus.

This era produced other systematists who adopted
various methods, but none that merit particular notice
except Geofiroy and De Geer. The former in this view
is principally celebrated as the author of the method
generally adopted by modern Entomologists, of dividing
the Coleoptera into primary sections, according to the
number of the joints of their tarsi. This method,
though in many instances, as was formerly observed^, it
leads to artificial results, in others afibrds a clue to na-
tural groups ; it can only therefore be applied subject to
frequent exceptions. Geoflroy's work ^, which was pub-
lished in 1764, was further servicqgble by indicating
many genera not defined by Linn^.

We next come to one of the greatest names in Ento-
mology, the celebrated De Geer, who united in himself
the highest merit of almost every department of that
science. Both as a systematist, an anatomist, and phy-

» Fn, Suec. Praef. ^ Vol. III. p. 682—.

* Hitioire abregee det Insectes,

GENERAL ORDERS.
CLASSES.

f

T. Four Wings
without wing- <

r L Having
wings

CO

7i

1

cases

n. Two Wings
. covered by two

wing-cases

in. Two wings ^
uncovered

f IV. Undergoing a J

is i

TL Witliout
L wings

<

metamorphosis

V. Undergoingno
L metamorphosis ^

CLASSES.

L Wing* covered with scales.

Tongtie spiral. Lefldoptxiia.
II« Wings membranousy naked.

JficmMwithoutteeth or tongue.

Trichoptera. Ephemerina.
IIL ^fzg« membranous, equal,

reticulated, il/oti/^ with teeth.

Rest of Neitroptera.

IV. FFt^«membranousune(|ua],
nervures mostly lonsitudmal.
ikfoii^ with teeth. Af^tngor
borer in the female. Hymeno-
ptera.

V. PTtng^ membranous. Tongue
bent under the breast. Homo-
FTERA Leach.

VL Slytra half coriaceous and
half membranous, crossed. A
pair of membranous mngt.
Tongue bent under the breast.
Hemiptera Leach.

VIL Elytra coriaceous or semi-
crustaceous, aliform. A pair of
membranous tuingt. Mouth
with teeth.. Orthoptera.

VIIL Elytra hard and crusta-
ceous. A pair of membranous
wings, i3ibiiM with teeth. Co-
leoptera.

IX. A pair of membranous winfs,
A pair o£poisers. Mouth with
a tongue without teeth. Di-

PTERA.

X. A pair of membranous wm^s.
No poisers, tongue, or teeth m
the male. No wings but a
tongue in the breast of the^e-

. 'male. Coccus L.
XL No wings. Six legs. Mouth
with a tongue. Aphaniptera.

XII. No wings. Six less. Head
and Trunk distinct. Hexapod
Aptera, Termes, Psocus.

XIII. No winss. 8 or 10 l^s.
Head vmteS to ^e trunk, Oc-
TOPOD Aptera, Arachkida,
Crustacea.

XIV. Noi£>ing#. 14If€g#opmore.
Head semtfated from the
trunk. roLYFpD Aptera.
Crustacea.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOaV* 443

siologist, aad as the <^eryant historian of the manners
and economy of insects^ his Metnoires pour servir d PHis^
toire des Insectes are above aQ praise. His system^ is
contained in a posthmnons volume published in ITTS'^.

This system^ though built ttpon the instruments of
flight; in its ternary grpvps^ equivalent to the Orders of
Liime, adds likewise tlie instruments of manducation,
and is thus intermediate between that of Linn^ and Fa-
bricius, who perhaps from the ccHisideration of it might
derive the first idea of assuming the last-mentioned or-
gans as the basis of a new method. But, though par-
taking of both, it is nearer to nature than either; and
had its illustrious author laid less stress upon the number
and substance of the organs of flight, it would probably
have been as near, perfection in this respect as most that
have succeeded it. But following too strictly these char
racters, he has been led to place in different Classes, or
rather Orders, insects that ought not to have been so se-
parated,—as in the case of the two sections of the Hemi-
pteroj and the Coccidce., In other respects the whole of
De. Geer's Memoir es are a storehouse of valuable observa-
tions, in which he has fiimished many a clue for thread-
ing the labyrinth of nature, and given most complete
and interesting histories of the whole economy and har
bits of many tribes and genera,— as of the Trkhopteraf
Aphides^ EphemerinOj &c.

In this latter department of the science a light shone
during part of the era we are now considering, which
eclipsed every one that appeared before it, and has
scarcely been equalled by any one that succeeded it
The date of its first appearance, indeed, was a year be-

* See the opposite page.

^ The first volume of his Menwires was published in 1 752.

444 HISTORY OF ISNTOMOL06V.

fore that of Linn^'s first outline of his Systema Natttrst
before alluded to; but it may properly be regarded as be-
longing to his era, since it did not disappear till «onie
years after that had begun. A volume indeed would
scarcely suffice to do justice to the preeminent merits of
Reaumur, as exhibited in his admirable Memoires pour
VHistoire des Insectes^i I must therefore content myself
with observing, that in judgement and ingenuity in plan-
ning his experiments ; in patient assiduity in watching
their progress ; in the elegance of his language, and the
felicity of his illustrations, he has rarely, if ever, been
equalled. Every subject that he undertook was tho-
roughly investigated, and in the true spirit of philoso-
phical inquiry. Every where you see him the same un-
prejudiced and profound observer, attached to no system,
anxious only for truth and the advancement of science.
If he has any fault, it is, perhaps, that of being some-
times too prolix; but we must recollect that from the na-
ture of his subject much difiuseness was often necessary
to render his meaning clear. A greater objection is his
total inattention to all system, except with regard to
Lepidoptera and their larvae^, so that it is ofl;en difficult
to ascertain the insects whose history he gives. But with
these exceptions, no observer of nature, who wishes his
discoveries to be at once profound and interesting, can
copy a better model or one nearer to perfection.

Next to that of Reaumur, the name of his admiring
correspondent Bonnet may be mentioned. This great
physiologist, though still more deficient in systematical
knowledge^, was also an admirable observer of the eco-
nomy and manners of insects. In this sense he became

' The first volume of this work was published in 1734, and the
si^th and last in 1 742- ^ Reaum. i. Mem. vi. viL and Mem. ii. 68 — .
" Smith's Tdiir/m. 150,

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOair. d<45

an Entomologist before he was seventeen years of age^
in consequence of an impression made upon him by the
account of the Andion in that attractive work the SpeiC"
tacle de la Nature. From verifying its wonderful his-
tory with his own eyes, he entered with enthusiasm upon
the study of other insects, his observations on which he
regularly communicated to Reaumur. Amongst other
interesting inquiries, his experiments on that singular
anomaly in nature the generation of Aphides^ do him
the highest credit, and have set that question perfectly
at rest^

In another department of the science this period was
distinguished by a work which may almost be deemed a
prodigy. I am speaking of Lyonnet's admirable treatise
on the piatomy of the caterpillar of the Cossus, — a work
which will uphold his reputation as long as Entomology
shall be cultivated as a science, or the comparative Ana-
tomist be delighted to trace the footsteps of Divine Wis-
dom in the gradually varying structure of animals^ The
plates to this publication, executed by the hand of its
excellent author, are as wonderful as the work itself;
and together, to use Bonnet's words, form a demonstration
of the existence of God. It is infinitely to be regretted,
that the author of this incomparable monument of sci-
entific ardour and patient industry should have died be-
fore the full completion of his anatomical description of
the jpi/pa and imago of the same insect; of which he had
prepared a considerable portion of the manuscript, and
engraved upwards of twenty of the plates.

Numerous other writers in various departments of
the science appeared during this era ; but it would b;s

• Vol. I. p. 174. Also see above, p. 160— . *• Bonnet i. 19 — .

446 HISTORY OF ENTOMOXOGY.

useless to enter into a particular detail of their works and
merits. I cannot however omit noticing, on account of his
inimitably accurate and chastely coloured representa-
tions of Zjepidcpteruj Sepp's beautifiil Nederlandsche In-
secten^ in which the whole history of these animals, from
the egg to the fly, is described and portrayed. In our own
country this era was distinguished by no entomol(^cal
work of any great eminence. Albin, Wilks, and Harris
produced the principal. Gould^ however, without hav«
ing any thing of sys&m, gave an admirable account of
English ants, which I formerly noticed^.

One of our first poets, the celebrated Gray, was also
much devoted to Entomology. From his interleaved
copy, of the Systema Nature, that venerable arid able na-
turalist. Sir T. G. Cullnm, Bart, copied the following
chanicters of the genera of insects of Linn^ drawn up
in Latin Hexameters, which he kindly communicated to
me.

CoLE3FTEBA.

Alas hrica tecUu Coieoptera^'oc/an/.

Serra pedum prodit Scarab€Bum et fissHe comu.
Dermesti antennae circum ambit lamina caulem
Qui caput incurvum tiniidus sub corpore celat.
In pectus retrahens caput abdiit claTiger Hister,
Occiput AtteUUn in posticum vergit acumen*
Curculio ingenti protendit cornua rostro.
Silpha laeves peltse atque elytronun exporrigit oras.
Truncus apex clavse> atque antennulce Coccionelke.

Casnda sub clyp^ totam se marg^e condit.
Chtytomela inflexa loricae stringitur ora.
Gibba caput Meloe incurvat thorace rotundo.
Oblongus frontem et tenues clypei exerit oras
Tenebrio. Abdomen MordelUs lamina vestit.
Curta elytra ostentat StaphyUs caudamque recurvam.

• Vol. II. p. 68, note •.

HIHTOKS OF ENTOMOLOGY. 447

Tubere cervicis valet, antennisque C&rambyx,
Pectore Leptura est tereti corpusque coarctat.
Flexile Cantharidu t^men, laterumque papillae.
Ast Elater resilit sterni mucrone supinus.
Maxilla exserta est oculoque Cidndela gran JL
Bvpretti antennas gradles, cervice retracta.
Nee Dytucut iners setosSt remige plantiU
Effigiem cordis Carabtu dat pectore trunco.
NecydaUt curto ex elytro nudam explicat alam.
Curtum> at ForficuUjB te^X hanc> cum forcipe cauda.

Hemiptera.

JDimidiam rottrata gerunt Hemiptera crustam
Foermna serpU humi interdum, volat {Bihera conjux,

Depressum BlatUs corpus venterque bicomis.
Dente vorax Grylltu deflexis sattitat alis.
Rostro Nepa rapax poUet chelisque. Cicada
Fastigio aUrum, et rostrato pectore saltat.
Tela Cimex inflexa gerit, cruce complicat alas.
Nbtonecta crucem quoque fert remosque pedales.
Comua Aphit caudae et rostrum, saepe erigit alas.
Deprimit has Chermet, dum saltat pectore ^bbo.
Coccus iners caudae setas, volitante iharito.
Thript alas angusta gerit, caudtoque recurvam.

Lepiboptera.

Squamam aUe, ImgutB tpiram Lepidopterajoc/on^
PapUio clayam, et squamosas subrigit alas.
Prismaticas Sphinx antennas, medioque tumentes :
At conicas gravis exten£t sub nocte Phakena,

Neuroptera.

Rete aks nudttm atque hamos Neuroptera caud<B.
Dente alisque potens secat aethera longa lAbella,
Cauda setigera erectis stat Ephemera pennis. ^

Phryganea elinguis rugosas deprimit alas.
Hemerinu$cpxe bidens planas tamen explicat ille.
Et rostro longo et cauda Panorpa minatur.
jRaphidia ejitento coUo setam trahit unam.

HVMENQPTERA.

At vitreat aku^jactdumque Hjrmenoptera cauda.
Foemneo data tela gregi, fnaribusque negata.

448 History of entomology.

Telum abdit spirale Cyn^, morsuque minatur.
Maxillas Tenikredo movet, serramque bivalTem.
Ichneumon gracili triplex abdomme telum :
£t Talde aurato resplendet corpore Chfyiis»
Haurit Apis lingua incurva, quod vindicat ense.
SphejF alam expandit Isevem, glatfiumque recondit.
Alae ruga notat Vetpam, caudaeque venenuin.
Squamula Formicem tergi, telumque pedestrem.
Dura minor alata volitat cum conji^ conjux.
Muiilla impennis, sed cauda spicula vibrat.

DiPTERA.

Diptera tub gerninU alts se poncere lihrant,

Os OSstro nullum, caudaque timetur inermi.
Longa caput T^ula est, labiisque et prsedita palpis.
Palpis Musca caret, retrahitque proboscida labris.
Qua TalMnus gaudet pariter, palpis subacutis.
Os Culicis molli e pharetra sua spicula vibrat.
Rostrum Empis durum et longum sub pectore curvat.
Porrigit articuli de cardine noxia Conops,
Porrigit at rectum et conieum sitibundus AsUus.
Longum et Bombylius qui sugit mella volando.
Unguibus Hippobosca valet, vibrat breve telum.

Aptera.
Aptera se pedibus penttarum nesciajactant*

' E»t tres setas cauda extendenteZrepMma.
Saltatrix est cauda Poduree inflexa Infurca.
Armantur Termis maxillis ora duabus
Fert telum quod ab ore Pedkidus edat acutum.
PuUcis inflexum rostrum est, telumque recondit.
Octo Acarus pedibus duplicique instructus ocello est.
Lumiua bis bina ocHpedata Pkalan^ gestant.
Octo oculis totidem pedibusque se Aranea jactat.
His etiam adjungit chelatos Scorpio palpos.
Dena pedum natura dedit fulcimina Cancro,
Unoculo bissena (duosque ambobus ocellos)
Quorum his chelatos geiit, ille gemellos.
Ovalis pedibus bis septem incedit Onisctu
Innumeris pedibus Scolopendra angusta movetur.
Secernit reliquis struptura cylindrica Itdtm,

•

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 449

During this era, and by the influence of Linn^, in the
year 1739 the Royal Academy of Sdences at Stockhohn
was established, which did for Natural History in Swe-
den what our own Royal Society had done for it in Eng-
land. Other societies, with a similar object, were form-
ed in different parts of Europe, and were attended by
similar good effects. At Paris, at Berlin, at St. Peters-
burg, at Moscow, at Turin, at Lisbon, &c., the lovers
of Nature, at that time and subsequently, have asso-
ciated for this purpose ; and I may mention here, that I
may not revert to the subject, the great Natural History
association of our own country, the Likkean Society,
named after the illustrious Swede, which was first insti-
tuted in 1788, and incorporated by royal charter in
1802. In the Transactions of this learned body, the Zoo-
logist in general, and particularly the Entomolo^t, will
find much useful information and many interesting ob-
servations connected with his science. Thb flourish-
ing society consists at this time of above 600 members,
of whom more than 500 are Fellows ; — a gratifying proof
how widely Natural History is cultivated in the British
ilmiHre.

5. Era of Fabricius^ or c^the Maxillary <^s/««. — We
are now arrived, if its consequences be considered, at
one of the most important epochs pf the science. Fa-
bridus, a pupil of Linnd, who highly estimated his en-
tomological acquirements*, thinking that the system of
his master was not built upon a foundation sufficiently
fixed and restricted^, conceived the idea of doing for

• Linn^ is recorded to have said, **Si DominusFabricius venitcum
aliquo Insecto, et Dominus Zo^;a cum aliquo Mtaco^ tunc ^go pileum
detaho et dico : Estote doctores mei." Stcever's Life of Lmmsiu,
186. «> Fab. P?tilos. Ent<molog. Prtef.

VOL. IV. 2 G

450 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOaY.

£litx>inology what the latter had d<»ie for Botany. As
the learned and illustlridus Swede had assumed the Fruc^
tificatian for the b^sia of his sptem in that science so the
emulous and highly-gifted Dane^ observing how hiq)pily
those organs were employed lus characters in extricating
ihe genera of Vertebrate animals, assumed the instrur
menfs of nUtndticationj far more numerous and various
in insects, for the basis of a new system of Entomo-
logy; which, from the masiUa being principally em-
ployied to characterize the Classes or rather Orders^ may
be called the MaxiUaty System. De Geer, indeed, as
we have seen above, had, in the majcnity of his Classes, to
the organs of flight added the parts of the mouth : but
Fabridus pursued the idea much further, and made the
Trqphi^^ or Instmmenta Cibaria as he called them, the
sole ocHtier-stone of his whole superstructure. Thou^
nothing seems to have been further from his intention
than to fdUow Naiurey since he complains that Linn£ by
following her too closely had lost the Ariadnean lliread of
system^yet it is singular that, by building upon thb seem-
in^y narrow foundation, he has furnished a dne^ by the
due use of which, instead of deserting her, his sucoeasors
have been enabled witb more certainty to extricate her
groups : since the parts in question being intimatdy con.
Lt^wid. the funTns a^d economy rf these ai^
where they differ materially, indicate a corresponding
difference in their character and station*

Hie^^ outline of his System, I bdieve, aj^ieared in
his Sbfstema EtUemologice published in 1 775; and the iasij
in hkSt^lement to his EtUamologia Sjjfstematica in 1 798.
In lliis die series and characters of his Classes (for so^

• Vol. III. p. 417.

"* Philos, Entomolog, vi. §. 9, Syti. Ent Prolegom.

JfliSTORY OF £NTOMOLOGV. '45l

alter De Geer» he denominates his primary groups)^ were

as follows : —

*

1. Eleutherata*. {Coleqptera L.) Maxilla naked^

free, palpigerons.

2. Ulonata^ {Orthoptera Oliv.) MaxtUa eovertfd by

an obtuse galea or lobe^

3. Synistata**. {Neurqptera L., excluding the LibeU

lulinay and taking in Termes L. and Thjfsflntfra
Latr.) Maxilla geniculate at the base and connate
with the labium.

4. PiE2ATA^. {Ifymenoptera L«) Maxilta corneous^

cconpressed) often elongate.

5. Odonata^. {LibelMina M^L«) Maxilla cameou%

toothed) two palpi,

6. Mitosata^ {MyriapodahesLch,) Maxilla corneovLS^

vaulted, not palpigerous*

Mdfk

?. Unogata^. {Ptdmoncny Arachnida Latr.) Maxilla
comeou% armed with 'a claw.

«»«
. 8. Poi&yoonataN {Isqpod and Branchiopod Orusiacea
Latr.) Palpi mostly six ; MaxiUce many within the
Ii^bium.
9, KxjsistoonathaV {Brachyurous Decapod Crustacea
Latr.) Many MaxiUce mtbmt the labium^ closing
the mout)).

* From "E^wAi^f Friej^ ^ Demation uiiceii;aui. Perh^s
Ai/7itfy, A long and narrow space or tract.

« 2y»i9Tnfih To stand together. * tUs^th lb press.

« Oit(f9 A tooth. f M/to<» A tbiead.

■ Unt^aia is probably a mistake for Ot^^ckaia ; from Om^ A claw.
^ Doubtless for Pofygna&a ; from IIoXfr£» Many, and Fvc^, A jaw«

* iO^fiwo^, Closed, and T^etios,

2g2

452 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY;

10. ExocHNATA*. (Macf'urotis Decapod Crustacea Latr.)
MaxilUe many without the labiuiUi, covered by
palpi.

1 I.^Glossata*'. {Lepidoptera L.) Mouth with a spiral
tongue between reflexed palpi.

12. Ryngota*^. {Hemiptera Latr.) Mouth with a ros-

trum, having a jointed sheath.

13. Antliata^. {Dtpterah,9AnopluraIjeB,ch,9 Trachean

Arachnida Latr. &c.) Mouth with a haustellum
without joints.

The Orders of Fabricius are equivalent usually to the
primary groups of the Linnean Orders, and are regu-
lated chie% by the antenme.

In estimating the value of the above system, we must
bear in mind that, according to the statement of its au-
thor, it Was intended to be partly artificial and partly
natural : artificial as to its Classes and Orders s natural
as to itsgenera^ species^ and varieties^. He admitted,
however, that natural Classes, &c. do exist; but he con-
tended that artificial ones should be substituted for them,
till fiirther discoveries had cleared the way for their sa*
tisfactory developement^ As therefore his system, in
its primary and secondary groups, was confessedly arti-
ficial, and the only use of an artificial system being to &.-
cilitate the study of any department of Natural History,
its value must be estimated by the facilities it affords to
the entomological student. But here, it must be allowed,

^ K|«» Without, and T¥»0os. ^ rx«79«, A tongue.

*-* 'Ifvyx^S* ^ rostrum. ^ AyrX/«, A pump.

* Disposftio insectorum sistit divisiones s. conjunctioDes eorum.
• et est arUficudit quae Classes et Ordines, et naturalis quae genera,
species, et varietaies docet. P^iios, Eniomol. vi. §, 2. ' Ibid- §. 7.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 543

that instead of enlarging the entrance to the temple of
his science, it has made it narrower, and has placed
most discouraging impediments in his way.

If you examine the definitions of his Classes, you will
find them in«L variety of cases calculated rather to mis-^
lead than to instruct a learner. Thus that of iheEleu^
therata would equally well suit the Piezata and several
others : that of the Piezata is scarcely to be found in it ;
since in this the ma^lla, instead of being corneous^ is usu-
ally cotiaceous% and its lobe sometimes nearly membra-
nous* In the Unogala he even mistakes the mandibles
for maxilhe. Let any young Entomolc^st endeavour to
make out the Fabrician class of a Cicindela tof instance;
and finding its maxillte corneous and armed with a claw,
he would conclude that it belonged to the Unogaia rsather .
than to the EietUherata. Besides all this, the necessity of
examining minute parts not easily come at without dis-
section, is very discouraging to a beginner.

Frcmi hence it is evident, that the system of Fabricius,
considered as an artificial one or a method^ was no im-
provement upon the classification of his master Linne,
but rather a retrograde movement in the science.

As to that part of his system in which he professes to
- take nature for his guide, his genera, — ^though even with
respect to them he "seems fearfiil of following her too
closely ^ — ^he certainly has rendered most essential ser-
vices to Entomology, and laid the foundation of all that
has since been done for its imfNTovement. But it must be

* Latreille Gen, Crust, et Itu. iii. 214.

*» With respect to Natural Genera he says — ** Cavendum tamen
ne nimis imitando naturam systematis amittainus liliim Ariadneiim."
Ifnd, }. 6.

45i HlSTOfiy OF ^NTOMOLOOY.

obsenred, that tb^ series of his genera is dflen altogether
artificial; as where he separates and {daces far asunder the
Saprophagous and Thaierq)hagoiis Petalocerous beetles.

Entomology, however, in oAter respects was deeply
indebted to this great man. He firsts as was lately ob^
served, directed the attention of her votaries to parts
which enabled them better to follow the chain of affini^
ties, and to trace out natural groups. In his Philoscpiia
Entamolcgiea^ drawn up on the plan of Linne's Philoso*
pkia Botanicay he bequeathed to the science a standard
work that ought to be studied by every Entomologist
His incredible labours in defining i^w genera and de-<
scribing new species, with which view he travelled into
various parts of Europe, and seven times into Britain,
hav^ be^i of infinite service^, and placed the science
upon a footing much nearer to that of Botany than it
had ever before attained.

6. EiYt qfLatreilte^ or <f the Eclectic System. The
system of Fabricius, though generally adopted in Ger-
many and Switzerland, did not meet with a universal
reception. It seems to have gained no permaaent foot«^
ing in the North of Europe, Britain, or France* In the
latter country tl^ Linnean phraseology and diaracta^ of
the Orders were retaioed by the celebrated Olivier ; while
at sthe same time his de^itions of genera were construct-
ed, after the Fabrician model) upon the antennae and the
Oral organs. But a new and brUliaut genius had now
speared in France, whose indefatigable labours and
singular talents have thrown more light over entomolo-
gical science than those of all his predecessors. In 1796

^ Fah. ErUomolog. Si/si. em, et atict. i. Pra&f. iv.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 455

about two years after Fabricius had completed his ErUo*
mologia Systematica emendata et auetOf M. Latreille pub-
lished his Precis de Caracteres Generiques des Insectes;
in which important work, walking in the steps of his
great compatriot Bernard de Jussieu, he disregarded all
artificial systems of Elntomology, and attempted to con-
struct one upon a natural basis: and to this end, uniting
the consideration of the instruments of manducatlon
with that of the organs for flight and motion, and of
other external characters, — or the system of Linne with
that of Fabricius, — he became the founder of the modern
or Eclectic system*; for he judiciously adopted that sen-
sible dictum of Scopoli, " Classes et Genera naturalia,
non sola instrumenta cibaria^ non solas ala^ nee solae
antennce constituunt, sed structura totiusy ac cujusque
vel minimi discriminis diligentissima observatio ^." His
object has been in the above and subsequent works, by
dividing his Classes into ;2a^2«ra^ Groups, from the Order
to the Genus, to trace out in all its windings, to its in-
most recesses, the perplexing labyrinth of the true system
of the Creator : — of what he has effected, the subjoined
tables will give you a sufficient idea^.

^ FaliMricius calls this a chaos, and threatens to prove it, but fee
never ftilfiJletl his thread. See Fab. Suppkm. Praef. i.
b Introd, ad Hist. NaL 401.
c See N, Diet, d'llist, Nat. x. article Entomohgie.

456

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

s'sl s

8d

.CO

fa

0i

H
Q

o

CO

c

OS

C
. P

S

I"

ea

C8

„ « «

•^£cJS£a3UUj3l£S»

J3 .5

C3

i

e5 08 - g « 5 g

V-!^

• • • • • • • 9 '»

U3

at

<

00

08
«>*
«o

S

u

09

c

OS

C

■v-

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOaV. 457

*

In a table of Invertebrate articulate animals distri-
buted according to their external organs*, this learned
Entomologist has arranged his JBn/oma differently, under
two Types divided into four Classes,— Thus :

Type I. Pofygnatha. Type II. Pteudognatha,

Class i. Crusktcea, Class iii. CruttaceO'Arachmda.

Decapoda. Branchiopoda. Branchiopoda.

Stomapoda. Phi^Uopa, Poecilopa.

Amphipoda. Lojphtfropa. Pycnogonides.

Laemodipoda^
Isopoda.
Myriapoda.

Class ii. Insecta.

Masticators. Suckers. Class i v. Arachmda]
Thvsanura. Lepidoptera. Pulmonarise.

Coleoptera. Suctoria. ' Holetrae.

Orthoptera. Hemiptera. Pediculariae.

Neuroptera. Diptera.
Hymenoptera. Pupipara.
Rhiphiptera.

Here he places the myriapods ^oh/pods) in the CruS'
taeecu and the Parasita^ after Lamarck, which surely is
no improvement, as an Order, under the name of Pedi'
cularia, in the Arachnida. He, very properly, divides,
Insecta into Mandibulata and HaustettatOj and has made
the Pupipara a separate Order.

Having given you these tables of the Orders, I shall
proceed to give those of his subordinate groups arranged
imder each. This I have already done, to save space,
in the Arachnida and Insecta aptera,

» Anim, Invertebr. Articul. Ann. dii Mus. 1821. ad calc.

458

HISTORY OF £29TOMdtOGY.

OaDXK. SlCTION.

Famiut.

Tjuuu
C Cicindeletfle.

SaasBcuov.

rTniocat^^ennes'*

J Cftrabici « Kpwtiti.

Thoradci.
Abdominales.
^SubulijpiJpi.

Entoiiiaphaga . j Hydrociiithiri.

^ Gyrinus.

f FissUiibres.

I Longipalpati.
Staphylinii .,..< Deplanati.

I Microcephali.

l,Heterodactyli.

fPentuoen i

I

I

Coleo-

ptera

Serricornes

I

Clavicornes

Palpicomes ...
^ Lamellicorncs

SScarabandes.
Lucanides.
r Fimeliario;.
f MeUm>ina i Blapsides.

fStemoxi ....JiS^-

fCdirionftes.
I JUimpyrides.
Malacodermi. . ^ Melyrides.
"Clerones. I Fdniores.

Palpatores. (^Lymexylonides.
Histerides.
< Feltoides,
Dermestini.
ByrrfaO.
^MacrodactyU. fCoprophagi.
'' HydrophiUi. I Geotmpini.
Sphseridiotak J XylopluU.

Atubobii.
^Melitophili.

I

\

I Taxicornes
Hetcromera^ Stenelytra

1

Trachelidcs

Tftrjuncra -{

I

1

! Trimera

C Tenebrionites.

Cossyphores.

Diaperialcs.

Helopii.
^ (Edemerites.

rPyrochrotdes.
Mordellones.
IAnthicites.
Hqyiales.
l^Cantharidlse.

fRhinchophora \ ?'"^^-*^-.,

*^ I Curculionitcs.

r Scolkarlae.

(^ Trogositariae.

Platysoma ...... Cucujipes.

C Piionii.
Longicorncs . . < Cerambycini.

t Lepturetcs.

Eupoda \^^f\

* ( Crioccndes.

i Cassidarice.

Cyclica ....... < Chrysomeliiii.

(_ Galerucltcs.

Lciavopalpata..|^[2j-:

( Aphidiphaga.
I Fungicola*

HISTORY Of •ENlX)MOLOGY.

459

OaD£K.

SECTION*

Orthopt^rm.

Hemiptera

Neuroptera.

'Heteroptera . .

Family* Tribe.

r Forficularise*

Cursoria ...4f>«**f^-
v^uip^xta •••! Spectra.

(.Manddes.
(Gryllones.
Saltatona.. ^Acridii.

C Locustariae.
fLongilabres.

Membranese,
Greocorisse. i Nudicolles.

Oculats.

Jlemigentes,

\

[

Horooptera . .

Planipennes '

.Plicipennes.

'n

forebraiitia

Hymcnoptera ^

-Aculeata . . . . ^

Hydrpcarisae/SfP^P* ,.
•^ iPlatydactyli.

C Cantatorise.
^Clcadarias . . s Fulgorellse.
C Cicadellse.
f Psyllidae.
Hyinenelytra j Thripsidae.
•Gallinsecta. v Aphidii.
air S Libellulinse.

j-Subulicornes J Epheraerinse.

pPanorpata;.
j Myrmeleonidea.
I I Hemerobini.

PsoquilU.
Termitini.
Raphidini,
Megaloptera.
Perlariae.
„ .^ k Tenthredineta^.
f8ecimfera..^Urocerata.
fBvaniales.
Ichneumonides.
Gallicolae.
Chalcidites.
Oxyurae.
Chrysiditles.
\ Formicariae.
Ilcterogyna ] Mutillari^,

rScoliatae.
Sapygites.
Ponipilii.
Sphegimae.
Berabeddesu
Larrataj
Nyssonii.
^Crabronites.

^. , cVespariae.

Diploptera. . j Masarides,

:i* ii-i- ( Andrenetac.

-Mcllifera . . -[Apiariac.

-Pupivora

(

■

Fos&orcs

460

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY,

OkDER.

Section.

Family.

Taibe.

Lepidoptera

Rhiphiptera.

Diptera

rDiuma ....{gSjSfr

Crepu8cularialSP'*»°gJ^^-
*^ t Zygasmdes,

fBombycites.

Noctuo4)ombycites<

Phalaeiutes.

Ddto'ides.

Noctuselites.

Tortrices.

J^octurna

f

rProboscida

i

..J

I

I Tineites.
^Fissipeniies.

Ne»ocera..{fuIi^-,.

'"Asilici.
Empides.
Inflata.
Bombyliarii.

Tanystoma i t^^^^^'*

Sicarlae.
Mydasii.
Riiagionides.
Dolichopodes.

Notacantha i pecatomae.
i StratiomydsB.

{Conopsariae.
Miiscides.

LEproboscida..|^Piipipara .. ^p^*^^^"

Phthiromyae*

N.B. This table is chiefy taken Jrom the tenth volume of the
Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle, arti-
cle Entomologie : hut the groups of the Carabici are
Jrom the Coleopteres d'Europe, 1*"^ livrais. 75 — .
If you examine the Orders as here given, you will
find that they mostly represent natural primary groups
of his Classes, though with regard to their distribution
you may perhaps feel disposed to differ from him. You
will also think that his secondary and minor groups*, with

"" Several of the minor groupt given in the table he has further re-

solved before he arrives at his genera.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

461

the exception of some of his sections, merit the same
charact^. Indeed, he has left far behind all his prede-
cessors in the progress that he has made towards ex-
tricating the true system. Setting out from a common
centre he holds on his unwearied course, endeavouring to
trace every set of objects that branches from it to its ex-
treme term. But though he studied insects analyticaUy
with unrivalled success, he was not always equally happy
in his syfdhetical arrangement of them. I do not here
so much speak of the result which must necessarily fol-
low from any arrangement in a series^ and which cannot
well be avoided; but I allude particularly to his adop-
tion of the GeofFroyan system in the Coleopteroj w:hich
has prevented him in many instances from seeing the
natural distribution of his groups.

In 1 798, two years tifter the publication of Latreille's
first enunciation of his system, M. Clairville, a very acute
and learned Swiss Entomologist, drew up the following
analytical table of insects.

S£CTIONS.

f 1. Elytroptera
(Coleoptera).
2» Deratoptera

Insecta'

Pterophora
(Winged)

<

1

Aptera f Haustellata

Mandibulata j {Orikopteray
\ 3. Dictyoptera
4 (Neuroptera),
I 4. Phleboptera
L ( Hymenoptera).

5. Halteriptera
(Diptera),

6. Lepidioptera
(Lepidoptera).

7. Hemimeroptera
( Henuptera),

8. Rophoteira.

Haustellata . *

)pi
L {Wingless) \ Mandibulata . . 9. Pododunera.

Every one will think that the change of the received
names of the Orders, here denominated Sections, is per-

462 HISTOilY OF ENTOMOtOOr,

fectly needless. The principal merit of this systetn is tbe^
division of insects, tacitly pointed out by Fabridtis, into
two groups or subclasses, from the mode in which they
take their food.

Lamarck,---whose merits as a Zooloj^st, e^c^ ill oiie
point*, are of the highest order, — in his Sifsthne desAni-
mauxsans VertebreSj which was published in 1802, adopts

the above division of insects ; but, after Aristotle^, be

♦

makes the Hymenopiera an intermediate Ordef between
the masticators and those that take their food by suction \
he places the Lepidoptera at the head of the latter, and
the Aphaniptera^ whidk he denominates Apiera^ at the
end^: the Hexapod, Octopod, and Polypod Aptera he
considers as Aracknida^. In his last glreat work {HU
stoire Naturelle des Animate sans Fertibres) he in-
cludes the Hymenoptera amongit the masticators, and
reverses the disposition of his Orders, beginning with
his Aptera and ending with the Coleoptera^.

M. Cuvier, in his Anatomic Comjior^^ (1805) divided
Insecta into two subclasses, from the presence or ab-
sence of maxilla : thus-^

With Maxilla. Without Maxilla.

1, Gnathaptera. 1. Hemiptera.

2. Neuroptera. 2. lepidoptera.
S. Hymenoptera. 3, Diptera.

4. Coleoptera. 4. Aptera.

5. Orthoptera.

His Gnathaptera include the Isopod Crustacea^ the

• Vol. III. p. 349, note *. •» See above p. 423.
"" 8yU. dei Anhn. mom Vericbr. 185. <> IM. 171.

* Amm. um Vertibr. iii. 33^^.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 463

Arachnida^ the Polypod, and some of the Octopod and
Hexapod^^^tf ; and his Aptera — Pidexy Pediculusj and
Acarus L., with the exclusion of Hydrachna F. ^ It is
remarkable enough that his Class as it , stands, with a
slight alteration, returns into itself, thus forming a circle;
for his first Order {Gnathapfera) contains HydracJtna
and the TTiysamira of Latreille, and his last {Aptera)
ends with Anoplura Leach, and Acarus L.

All &e French Entomologists have fc^owed Olivier
and Latreille in adopting, with some variation, Geof-
froy's system with regard to the Coleoptera^ which has
rendered them all more or less artificiaL Dumeril has
constructed a table of the Order, arranged differently
from that above given ^ of Latreille ; but not more na-
tural, for the very same reason.

Our learned countryman. Dr. Leach, by his zoolo-
gical labours has thrown much light on the natural dis-
tribudon of the Animal Kingdom, and no department
of that kingdom is more indebted to him than the
Annulosa / of which I have before stated to you his
Classes^. I shall now give a table of his Orders of Arajoh-
nida and Insecta Latr. and also his families^ &;c. of his
Classes Myriapoda and AracAnides^*

Class, Obdeb* Fakily,

{C Glpioerides.
Chilognatha .... j luHdes.
Syngnatha \ Scolopenibrides.

C GeopbiHdes.

' ,^mt> Ctmp, i, /• viH.

^ Expos. d*uw MM. Nat. 17.

* Voi-lll-|>-19.

* lAftiu Tram. xi. 876. N. B. I have transferred from the Arach--
vUa Us sabcrder Notosiomaia^ as lie subsequently placed it at the
end of Insecta, uj^der the Omaloptera,

464

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Class.

Arachnides

Oedsr. Family.

r Sironides.
Polymerosomata . \ Scorpioiudes.

C Tarantulides.

Dimerosomata

. Monomerosomata

Insecta

rAmetabolia { Thy«jnura.
I i Anoplura.

I f Coleoptera.

Solpugides.

Phalangides.

Araneides.
r Trombidides.

Gammasides.

Acarides.

Cheyletides.

Eylaides.
^ Hydrachnides.

i

Dermaptera.

Orthoptera.

Dictyoptera.

Hemiptera.

Omoptera.

Metabolia < f P*^ ,

Lepidoptera.

Trichoptera.

Neuroptera.

Hymenoptera.

Rhiphiptera.

Diptera.

L Omaloptera.

I have before expressed my sentiments upon several
of these Orders* : I shall not here repeat them, but shall
merely observe, with respect to those I have not adopted,
that, though perhaps not entitled to rank as Orders^
most'of them form natural groups. His Orders, however,
of Arachnida must be excepted from this remark, since
they are evidently artificial. His analyses of his Orders,
though in general they give natural groups, are usually
not carried so far as those of M. Latreille, so as seldom
to indicate what may properly be denominated^mi/iVf.
He has made his nomenclature for his so-called &milies
more uniform and satisfactory than that of the French
■ See above, pp. 369, 3?), 377, 382.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

465

Entomologist : and we may say, with respect to the ex-
tent and effect of his zoological labours, — Nihil rum
ietigitj et omnia qtue tetigit omaviU

7. Era ofMacLeay^ or of the QyimBry System. I have
more than once stated to you in my former letters the
bases i^on which the system which I am in the last
place to explain to you is built. You know the Sub-king-
doms and Classes into which its learned and ingenious
author, upon a novel and most remarkable plan, has di-
vided the Animal Kingdom'. I shall now copy for you
his diagram of the Annvlosa.

• Vol. in. p. 14.
VOL, jv.

I— J

H

2h

46f5 HISTORY OF ENIt)lVlOI.O«Y.

I have before sufficiently noticed these Classes^ or
Orders as Mr. MacLeay terms them, of the Sub^kili^
dom Annulosa : I shall here therefore ^ cmly throw oBt
a few remarks on their composition. With regard to
their drCT</ar distribution in the Crustacea^ Mr. MacLeay
thinks the series runs from the Branchiopods or iibmo-
cfdus L. to the Decapods or Cancer L. ; and ao on, till by
means perhaps of the genus Bopyrus, which Fabricius re-
gards as a Monocuhts, it returns to the Brandiiopods
again. This circle, through ParceUio Latr., a kind of
woodlouse, &c., which has only a pair of antennce Mid at
first but six legs, is omnected with the Ametabola Class,
which beginning with Glomeris goes by the other Chilo^
gnatha [Itdus L.), having also six legs at first, and certain
Fermes to the Anoplura, and terminates in the Chilopoda
{Scolopendra L.) their cognate tribe*. From th^Ameta-
bola Mr. MacLeay proceeds to the MandibtdatOy between
which two groups he has discovered no osculant one, but
he takes the Anqplura of the former as the transit to d\e
Coleqptera in the latter; from whence passing to the Or-*
thopteruy &c., he finally retufms by the Hymenoptercu
Between the Mandibtdata likewise and Haustellata he
finds no osculant class : but as the affinity between the
Trichoptera and JLepidoptera is evident, proceeding by
the Homoptera he returns to the Leprdeptera. by certain
Diptera^ as Psychoda^ &c. From the Aptera Lam. or
Pulex L. be passes, by the osculant class Nycterihida to the
Arachnida ; and beginning with the Acaridea^ he goes to
the Scorpionidea, and so to the Aranidea or spiders,
which he connects with the Decapod Crustacea ,- — thus

■ See Vol. III. p. 25^, and above, p. 385—.

IflSTQRY OF EN^rOMOLOOY.

467

Ibnnwg bis great circle of Jhe smaller ones, each of
whieh, a9 well as that which Aey fbrni) returns into it-
Self ^

We next take bis Circles <^ Mandibtdata : dius —

<

OS

* ITor. EfUomohg, c. yi.
2 h2

468 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

In this arrangement of the tribes, as he calls liiem, of
Mandihdata, Mr, MacLeay sets out from the Coleoptera^
which he distributes, according to the supposed typical
forms of their larviB, into five minor groups, sufficiendy
noticed on a former occasion *. From this tribe or Order
he proposes to pass by Atractocerus to the osculant Order
Strepsiptera, and from thence by Myrmecodes Latr. and
the Ants to the Hymenoptera. From hence he next pro-
ceeds to his Trichoptera ; in which, as we have seen *,
he places not only Phyganea L., but also Tenthredo L.
and Perla GeofFr., making his transit by Sirex L, ; form-
ing an osculant Order which he AerkamrndXe^Bomboptera.
From this his way to the Neuroptera is by the Perlides^
with Sialis Latr. as an osculant Order under the name
of Megaloptera : he enters by Chatdiodes, and leaves it
by Panorpa or Raphidia by means of Boreus, forming
also an osculant Order [Raphioptera) for the Orthoptera;
which he enters by Phasma, Mantis,* &c,, and leaves by
Gryllm Latr., entering the Coleoptera again by the os-
culant Order Dermaptera formed of Forficula L. : and
thus returning to the point from which he set out^. He
has not, however, made this return of the series into
itself so clear in each order, excepting in the Ortho-
ptera, as he has done in the whole Class or Sub-class.
Thus in the Coleoptera there appears no particular af-
finity between the Predaceous and Vesicant beetles, his
first and fifth forms ^, or his Chilopodimorphous Coleo-
ptera, and his Thysanurimorphous.

To enter fully into his doctrine of Analogies would
lead us into a very wide field, and occupy a larger space

* See above, p. 374. ^ H^r, Entomohg. 4^0—,

• Ibid, 422.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 469

than I can affi>rd ; I must therefore refer you to his
work for more particular and detailed information on
that subject. With regard to the analogies between op-
posite points of contiguous circles, you may get a very
good idea of it from his diagram of Saprophagous and
Thalerophagous Petalocerous beetles, which I here
subjoin.

It is a very singular circumstance that in these two
circles we have two sets of insects, — one impure in its ha-
bits and feeding upon putrescent food, and the other
clean and nourished by food that has suffered no decay ^ —
set in contrast with each other, and that in each of the op-
posite groups, the one has its counterpart in some respect
in the other. In none is this more striking than the Sea--
rabceidce and CetoniadcBy both remarkable for having soft

membranous mandibles unfit for mastication, and both

»

living upon juices, the one in a putrescent and the other
in an undecayed state ^.

* Other systems or methods have been promulgated by various
authors, as by Schaefier, Scopoli, Geofiroy, &c. Walckenaer and
Blainville have proposed one founded on the number of the legt of
insects ; but those in the text are the principal and best known.
— iST. BicU ePHist Nat, xvi. 277.

470 firSTOHY OF £^*rolifOLO0l!'.

Our learned tiudior in «;ut>!s^uent works hiks stated
every circle to be resdvable mvci two superior gro^>s,
which he denominBties nommt ot ty^^al, and three infe^
rior ones, which he calls aietrani or annect^tit^.

Befere I conclude this account of the varioaB general
systems that have distinguished ttte difi^ent entomolo-
gical eras, I must say a few words on those partM imes
which have been founded on the neuration of the nxdngs
of insects. Frisch, who died in 174*3, attempted some-
thi^in ^s way ^ : Harris, in his Exposition qf English
Insects published in 1782, had arranged his Hymeno-
ptera and DipterU according to ch&racters derived from
this same circumstance ^ : Mr. Jones in the Linnean
Transactions had made good use of it in divicK^ the
Diurnal Lepidoptera into groups**: and in the Monogra--
phia Apum Anglic, the characters exhibited by the va-
rious groups into which Linne's genus Apis was resolv-
able, as to the neuration of their wings, were described ^
But M. Jurine was the first Entomologist who made that
circumstance the keystone of a system ; which indeed he
restricted to Hymenopterous and Dipterous insects, but
which might be extended much further. As this system
has been before sufficiently enlarged uponS I ne(dd here
only mention it.

To particularize the various entomological works in
every department of the science, that have appeared since
the commencement of the era of Fabricius, would re-

^ Linn. Trans, xiv. 59*-^. Aufmhs.. Jumnu 6. 800 above, p. 400*
^ Latreille Gen. Cruat. H Ins* iii* 9^6. no^ L
<= Pre^. ii. «» IAm» Trum. ii. 68—.

• Mon. Ap. 4ngl. I. 211—. ^ Vol. III. p. eS». n. 3.

HISTORY OF £NT0M0|;.06Y. 471

quire a voluine. Such was its progress and spread, that
in every corner of Europe the pens and pencils of able
and eminent men, whose works have almost all been
quoted in the course of our correspondence, have been
employed to illustrate it*.

* Ft may not be unprofitable here to mention those works which
the Eiitomolc^^ may find it most usefiil to consult in various de-
partments of the science. For descriptions of the Genera and Spe-
cies of insects in general, he must have recourse to the Entomologia
SystenutHca emendata et aucta of Fabricius, and its Supplement ;
to the volumes he subsequently published under the titles Sytlema
£imMeral6rwtC Bhi/ngoix>runit GJossatorum, Piezatqrumt and AntlUh-
toruiH ; to the Genera Cruitaceorum et Insectorum of Latreille ; to the
same department of the Regne Animal o^Cyxner ; and to the Anhnatut
9nnt Vertfbres of LAmarck. He will find the genera of Linn^ and Fa*
bdcius illustrated by figure*^ in Rosmer's Genera ; and many of the
species described by the latter in Coquebert's lUustratio Iconographica.
In oiir countryman Drury's beautiful lUtutrations of Natural History,
a large nUtnber of new and fare insects are d^icted ; and in Mr. I>a*
Qoyan's Insects of China, IwHa, and New Hdland, some of the most
brilliant and interesting that have been imp^orted from those coun-
tries. Panzer's Fauna Insectorum Germanica Iniiia has little short of
3000 figures of insects of every Order (a considerable number of which
are found to inhabit Britain), by the celebrated Sturm ; and thq
latter, in his Deutscfdands Fauna, has illustrated many Coleopterous
genera analytically (as has also M. Clairville the weevils and Preda-
ceous beetles of Switzerland in his Entomologie Helvettque) by his
admirable pencil* Beetles in general are well figured and described
in Olivier's splendid Fntomologie; as are those of Europe in a beau-
tiful work now in course of publication, under the title of Cole-
t^ires ^Europe, by MM. Latreille and Dejean. For the Ortho-
ptera and Hemiptera, the student must have recourse to StolPs Spec
tres, Mantes, Sauterelles, GrillonSf Blattes, Cigales, and Punaises,
To a knowledge of the species of Lepidoptera, the admirable figures
of Cramer {PapUlona Exotiques de trots Parties du Monde) Esper
(Schmetterlinge, Tagschmetterlinge), and Hiibner (Schmetterlinge, &c),
will afibrd a useful avenue ; to the H^menoptera Christian, and to the
Diptera Meigen.

With regard to vforks in British Entomology in general — Dono-
van's Natural History of Brkish Insects, and Samouelle's Entomolo-

♦^g HISTOllY Of ENTOMOIiOGV.

I may observe, however, that the Internal Anatomy of
Insects, a branch of Entomology which on account of
its difficulty, from the extreme nicety required in dissect-'
ing them, had before been cultivated by scarcdy more
than a single student in an age, had now attracted nu-
merous votaries. In Germany — Graede, Herold, Posselt,
Ramdohr, Rifferschweils, Sprengel, and others, distin-
guished themselves in this arena : and in France, besides
the illustrious Baron Cuvier (himself a host), Marcel de
Serres, Leon Dufour, and very recently, by his diabo-
rate essays On the Flight qf Insects and its wonderfid ap-
paratus, one of the most acute of anatomical physiolo-
gists, M. Chabrier, — ^have all contributed greatly to the
elucidation of this interesting part of the science. In
our own country very little has hitherto been effected
in this line ; but I understand a learned Oxford Pro-
fessor (Kidd) has presented to the Royal Society an ac-

^t*$ useful Compendium, will be found very excellent helps to the
student. For the British Genera, the most important work that has
yet appeared is Mr. John Curtis's Brituh Entomologist in which not
only are the insects admirably represented, but their trophi correctly
delineated, accompanied by able descriptions. For the Coleoptera
of our country, Mr. Marsham's Entomologia BrUannica should be
consulted : for the Lepidoptera, the Butterflies of Lewin, and Mr.
Haworth's useful Lepidoptera Britannica; and for the English spe-
cies of Linn^'s genus Apis, the Monographia Apum AngUtp, These
are the principal works that have at present appeared, to ud the
student in his endeavours to become acquainted with our indigenous
insects. It is to be hoped, however, that some able Entomologist
will undertake that grand desideratum a British Fauna Insectorum.
Who so well qualified for this great work as the possessor of the
most complete collection of British insects, and whose thorough
knowledge of the subject equals his means for its elucidation ? May
it therefore in such good hands begin, make progress, prosper, and,
Deofavente, be happily concluded ! Verbum sapienti

HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY. 473

count of the anatomy of the Mole-cricket, which will
entitle him to an eminent station amongst the above
worthies.

I may likewise further observe, that the pictorial de-
partment of Entomology was, during the period I am
speaking of, carried to its greatest perfection. Painters
of insects formerly were satisfied with giving a repre-
sentation generally correct, without attempting a faithful
delineation of all the minor parts, particularly as to
nunAer ; — ^for instance, the joints of the antennas and
tarsi, the areolets of the wings, &c. : but now no one
gives satisfaction as an entomological artist unless he is
accurate in these respects.

LETTER XLIX.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IN-
SECTS; THEIR STATIQNS AND HAUNTS.-
SEASONS; TIMES OF ACTION AND RE^
POSE.

Though no subject is more worthy of the attention
of the Entomologist than the Geographical Distribution
of insects, yet perhaps there is none connected with the
science, for the elucidation of which he is furnished with
fewer materials. The geographer of these animals sit-
ting by his fireside, even supposing his museum as amply
stored as that of Mr. MacLeay, and the habitats of its
contents as accurately indicated, still labours under di-
ficulties that are almost insuperable ; so that it is next to
impossible, with our present knowledge of the subject,
to give satisfactory information upon every point which
it includes. Had he the talents and opportunities of a
Humboldt, and could, like him, traverse a large portion
of the globe, he would endeavour to note the elevation,
the soil and aspect, the latitude and longitude, the mean
temperature and meteorological phsenomena, the season
of the year, the kind of country, and other localities con-
nected with the insects he captured, and so might build
his superstructure upon a sure basis. But these are

GEafiRAPHlCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 475

things seldom registered by travellers that take the
trouWe to collect insects ; who, if they specify generally
the country in whith any individual y/^s found, think
they have done enough. But to say diat an insect was
taken in India, China, New Holland, and Nordi or
South America, — when we Considet the vast extent of
those regions, — is saying little of what one wishes to
know even with respect to its habitat. You must re-
gard therefore, after all, what I have been able to col-
lect,— and for which I am greatly indebted to the labours
of my few but able precursors in this walk, — as merely
approximations to an outttney rather than as a correct
map of insect Geography.

Amongst the numerous obligations that he conferred
upoli Natural History, Linne was the first Naturalist
who turned his attention to the Geographical Distribu-
lion of its objects, especially that of the Vegetable King-
dom* : and the accomplished traveller Baron Hum-
boklt, by the observations he made on this subject ih
tfie course of his peregrinations in tropical America,
has furnished the Botanist with a clue which, duly fol-
lowed, will enable him to perfect that part ctf his science ;
an end to which the learned observations of Messrs.
H. Brown and Decandolte have greatly contributed**.
With regard to animals, Mr. White, so long ago as
1773, had observed that they, as well as plants, might
with propriety be arranged geographically ^ : and in 1 778
Fabricius in his Philosophia Enfomologim applied the
principle to insects^. Nearly forty years elapsed before

» Linn. Philot, JBotan. { 334.

*• lAnn, Trans, x. 20—. &c. Diet, des Scienc, Nat, xviii.

« ISefbome i. IJd, ** Philos, Entonudttg, ix. J 20,

476 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS*

any improvement or enlargement of this last department
was attempted; when in 1815 M. Latreille, stimulated
by what had been effected in Botany, in a learned and
admirable memoir^ endeavoured to place Entomology
in this respect by the side of her more fortunate sister :
and subsequently Mr. W. S. MacLeay, in the memora-
ble work so often quoted in our correspondence, has
viewed the subject in another light, and added some
important information to what had been before col-
lected **.

The point now under consideration naturally divides
itself into two principal branches ; — the numerical distri-
bution of insects, and the iopographicaL

I. By the numerical distribution of insects I mean
not only the number which Providence has employed
to carry on its great plan on this terraqueous globe, or
any given portion of it ; or of the species of which each
group or genus may be supposed to consist; or of the
comparative number of individuals furnished by each
species,— points of no easy solution: but more parti-
cularly their distribution according to th&iT Junctions^
whether they prey upon animal or vegetable matter, and
in its livir^ or decaying state.

We have no data enabling us to ascertain with any
degree of accuracy the actual number of species of in-
sects and Arachnida distributed over the surface of the
globe ; but it is doubtless regulated ia a great degree by
that of plants. We should first then endeavour to gain
some just though general notion on that he^. Now
DecandoUe conjectures that the number of the species

» Mem. du Mus. 3815. «> Hor, Entotiwlog. 42—. 518.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 477

of' plants, 60,000 being already known, may be some-
where between 110,000 and 120,000*. If we consider,
with reference to this calculation, that though the great
body of the mosses, lichens, and sea-weeds are exempt
from the attack of insects, yet as avast number of phane^o-
gaonous plants and fungi are inhabited by several species,
we may form some idea how immense must be the num-
ber of existing insects ; and how beggarly does Ray's con-
jecture of 20,000 species^, which in his time was reckoned
a magnificent idea, appear in comparison ! Perhaps we
may obtain some approximation by comparing the num-
ber of the species of insects already discovered in Britain
with that of its phanerogamous plants. The latter, — and it
is not to be expected that any large number of species have
escaped the researches of our numerous Botanists, — ^may
be stated in round numbers at 1500, while the British in-
sects, (and thousands it is probable remain still undisco-
vered,) amount to 10,000 ; which is more than sia: insects
to one plant. Now though this proportion, it is probable,
does not hold universally ; yet if it be considered how
much more prolific in species tropical regions are than
our chilly climate, it may perhaps be regarded as not
very wide of a fair medium. If then we reckon the pha-
nerogamous vegetables of the globe in round numbers at
1 00,000 species, the number of insects would amount to
600,000. If we say 400,000, we shall perhaps not be
very wide of the truth. When we reflect how much
greater attention has been paid to the collection of
plants than to that of insects, and that 100,000 species
of the latter may be supposed already to have a place

* Estai Eliment. de Geograph, Botan, 62,

* Wisdom of God, &c. 2d edit. 9.

4?S GSOGSAPHICAL DISTRIBITTION OIB 1NfiEeT&

ia our cabiaets*, we may Tery reasonably infer drat at
least ihree fourths of the existing species remam laadis*
coyered*

Certain groups and genera are found to contain vaopf
more species than others : fbr instance^ the Coleqidera
and Lepidoptera Orders than die Qrlkopiera and Ne^
ns/ptera; ihtBAincopkora Latr. than theXj^Uqfhagi Latr«;
the DytisddiB than the Gyrinidup ; Aphoditss than Ge^
trupes; Carabus than Cahsoma. Againy some inaects
are much more prolific than others. Thus &e Dipiera
Order, though not half so numerous ivith respect to ^/e-
des as the Coleqptera, exceeds it greatfy in the number
of individuah, filling the air in every place and abno6t>
at every season with its dancing myrtads* We raidy
meet with a single iudividual of the most common Bpt^
oies of Calosoma or Buprestis; whilst the< fiNinkary) the
termitary, the vei^iary, and the bee-hive send forth
their thousands and tens of thousands ; and whole co«u<«
tries are covered and devastated by the Jphidea and the
Locusts. An alUwise Providence has proportioiied
the numbers of eac^ group and species to the work as*
signed to tl^ra. And this is the view in whidi the no*
merical distribution of insects is most interesting^ and
important: and we are indebted to Mr. W. S. MacLeay
ibr calling the attention of Entomologists more partico*
larly to this part of our present subject.

With regard to ^their Jimctionsy insects may be pri^
manly divided into those that feed \xpan animal matter
and those that feed upon vegetable. At fir^ you would
be inclined to suppose that the latter must greatly ex-

* Hor, Entomolog, 469. This caloulktion inckidea the CruOa^ca,

GEOGRAPHICAL BISTRIBUTION OF INSSCIS. 470

oeed the farmer in number : but when you refidct that
net mily a very large proportion of Vertebrate animal%
and even some MoUusca^j have more than one species
that preys upon them, but that probably the majxmty of
insects, particularly the almost innumerable species of
Leptdoptera^ are infested by parasites of their own clas%
sometimes having a cMffisrent one appropriated to them
in «ach of their preparatory states ^^^ and moreover diat
a large number of beetles and other insects devour both
living and dead animals, — you will begin to suspect that
these two tribes may be more near a counterpoise than
at first seemed probable. In fact, out of a list of more
than 8000 British insects and Arachnida taken three
years ago, and furnished chiefly by Mr. Stephens, I found
that 3894 might be called caniivorous, and 5724 phyti-
phagous^ ; so that, speaking roundly, they might be de-
nominated equiponderant.

Carnivorous and phytiphagous insects may be further
subdivided accordmg to the state in which they take
their^^M><4 — whether they attack it while Uving^ or not
till after it is dead^ To adopt Mr. W. S. MacLeay's
phraseology, the former may be denominated ihalerO'
phiig&us^ and the latter sapropkagom. The British s»-
prophagous carnivorous insects, compared with those
that are tibalerophagous, are about as 1 : 6 ; while the
phytiphagous ones are as 1 : 9. The thaleropkaga in
both tribes may be further subdivided as they take their

* It has lately been discovered that the larva of Drilusj/lavescens,
a beetle, feeds upon the common snail. {Bulletin det Seienc. Nat.
18^4. iii. 2&J ; v. 110 ; vi. 2^1.) I have found ao Aoamt oo the same
animal. ** See above, p. 212 — .

^ We employ this term, because the more common one, herUvo*
rout, does not properly include devourers of timber, fungi, &c.

480 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECT&

food hy suction ot mastication: in the camivorom ones, the
suckers to the masticators in Britain are nearly as 1 : 6 ;
but with respect to the phytiphagom tribe you must take
into consideration that some insects imbibing their food
by suction in their perfect state (as thie great body of the
Ijepidoptera\ jnasticate it when they are larvae: deducting
therefore from both sides the insects thus circumstanced,
the masticators will form about three fourths of the re-
maining British thalerophagous insects. Another cir-
cumstance belonging to this head must not be passed
without notice : — there are certain insects feeding upon
liquid food that do not sucici but lap it This is the case
with the Hymenoptera^ who, though they are mandibulate,
generally lap.their food (the nectar of flowers) with their
tongue, and may be called lambent insects : nor is this
practice confined to that Order, but all the mandibulate
insects that feed on that substance merit the same appel-
lation. The absorption of this nectar is so important a
point in the economy of nature, that a very large propor-
tion of the insect population of the globe in their perfect
state, are devoted .to it* Considerably more than half
the species indigenous to Britain fulfill this function,
and probably in tropical countries the proportion may
be still larger.

To push this analysis still further — Amongst our car-
nivorous thalerophaga, aphidivorous insects are about as
1:14; and amongst the phytiphagous, thefiingivorous
ones form about a twentieth ; and the granivorous about
a tmeniy-ffth part of the whole. Again : in the sapro^
phaga the lignivorous tribes form more than half, and
the coj)rophagous ones more than a third.

If you wish to know further the relative proportions

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 481

of the different Orders to each other. The Coleoptera
may be stated as forming at least 1 : 2 of oiir intire insect
population; the OrtAoptera and Dermaptera as about
1 : 160; ih^Hemiptera as 1 : 15; the Lepidoplera as more
than 1:4; the Neuroptera with the Trichoptera as 1 : 29 ;
the Hymenoptera as about 1:4; the Diptera as not 1:7;
and the Aptera and Arachnida as perhaps amounting to
1:19«.

To extend this inquiry to exotic and more particularly
to extra^European insects, in the present state of our
knowledge, would lead to no very satisfactory results.
The lists we have are so imperfect, that those which tell
most in this country, — 1 mean the more minute insects
and the Brachelytra Latr.,— have hitherto formed a very
small, if any part, of the collections made out of £u«
rope. Mr. W. S. MacLeay however, who, besides hisf
bther's (particularly rich in Petalocera\ has had an op^
portunity of examtaing the Parisian and other cabinets,
finds that the species of coprophagom insects within the
tropics, to those witAout, are nearly in the proportion of
4:3; and that the coprophagous Petalocera^ to the re-
mainder of the saprophagous ones, may be represented by
3:2^. It may be inferred, from the superabundance of
plants and animals in equinoctial countries, that the num-
ber of species of insects in general is greater within than
without the tropics : the additional momentum produced
by the vast size of many of the tropical species must also
be taken into consideration.

II. There are three principal points that call for at-

• If we consider the number ^f species of Acariy Nirmi, Podura,
and AraneicUs, this proportion will appear moderate.

* Hot, Entomolog, 48.

VOL. IV. 2 I

482 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS;

iention under the secotid branch of our present subject-*-^
the topographical distribution of insects; namely, their
Climates, their Range, and their Representaiion*

i. Entomologists, taikmgheat for the principal regulator
of the station of insects, have divided the globe into ento-
mological climates. Fabricius considers it as .divisible into
eight such climates, which he denominates the Indian,
Egyptian, Southern, Mediterranean, Northern, Oriental,
Occidental, and Alpine. The first, containing the tro-
pics ; the second, the northern region immediately ad-
jacent ; the third, the southern ; the fourth, the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean sea, including also
Armenia and Media ; the fifth, the northern part of
Europe interjacent between Lapland and Paris; idle
sixth, the northern parts of Asia where the cold in winter
is intense ; the seventh, North America, Japan, and
China; and the eighth, all those mountains whose sum-
mits ai^e covered with eternal snow** M. Latreille ob-
ject? to this division, as too vague and arbitrary and not
sufficiently correct as to temperature ; and observes, with
great truth, that as places where the temperature is the
same have different animals, it is impossible, in the actual
state of our knowledge, to fix these distinctions of climates
upon a solid basis. The different elevations of the soil
above the level of the sea, its mineralogical composition,
the varying quantity of its waters, the modifications which
the mountains, by their extent, their height, and their di-
rection, produce upon its temperature ; the forests, larger
or smaller, with which it may be covered; the effects of
neighbouring climates upon it,-r-are all elements that

■ PhUos. Entomolog, ix.'f 20.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 483

render calculations on this subject very complicated, and
dirow a great degree of uncertainty over them^. This
learned Entomologist would judiciously consider ento-
mological climates under another view, — that which the
genera of Arachnida and insects exclusively appropriated
to determinate spots or regions would supply^ Limit's
dictum with regard to genera will here also apply ; <^ Let
the insects point out the climate, and not the climate the
insects.'^ If you expect invariably to find the same insects
within the same parallels of latitude, you will be sadly
disappointed ; for, as our author further observes, *^ The
totality or a very large number of Arachnida and insects,
die temperature and soil of whose country are the same,
but widdy separated, is in general, eveii if the countries
are in the same parallel, composed of different species^."
The natural limits of a country,— as mountainous ranges^
rivers, vast deserts, &c., — often also say to its insect po-
pulation, '^ No further shall ye come ; " interposing a bar-
rier that it never passes^* Humboldt observes, with jre-r
spect to the Simidia and Culices of South America, that
their geographical distribution does not appear to depend
solely on the ieat of the climate, the excess of humidity,
or the thickness of forests; but on local circumstances that
are difficult to characterize®: and Mr. W»S» MacLeay
makes a similar observation upon that of GymnopUurm
UL ^. So that the real insect climates, or those in which
certain groups or species appear, may be regarded as

■ Geograph. Gener, des Ins. 5. ^ Ibid,

^ Ibid.!--. ^ Ibid.%,n.

* PerMonal. Karrat. E. T. t. 8d. He says also ^a| each stream
almost has its peculiar species (^Ibid, 98), and that they sometimes
emigrate to stations they had not infested before. Ibid 106 — ,

' Hot. EntoDiolog, 519.

2l 2

484 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

fixed by the will of ihe Creator, rather than as certainlj
regulated by any isothermal lines. Still, however, under
certain limitations, it must be admitted that the tempera-
ture has much to do with the station of insects. The
increase of caloric is always attended with a proportional
increase in the number and kind of the groups and
species of these beings. If we begin within the polar
regions of ice and snow, the list is very meager. As we
descend towards the line, their numbers keep gradually
increasing, till they absolutely sfmarm within the tropics*
Something like this takes place in miniature upon moun*
tains. Toumefort long since observed at the summit of
Mount Ararat the plants of Lapland ; a little lower, those
of Sweden ; next, as he descended, those of Germany,
France, and Italy ; and at the foot of the mountain, such"
41s were natural to the soil of Armenia. And the same
has been observed of insects. Those that inhabit the
plains of northern regions have been found on the mowi'
tains of more southern ones ; as the beautiful and common
Swedish butterfly Pamassius JpollOj on the mountains of
France, and Prionus depsarius on those of Switzerland *.

M. Latreille, having given a rapid survey of the
peculiar insect productions of different countries, next
attempts a division of the globe into climates^ which he
thinks may be made to agree with the present state of
our knowledge, and be even applicable to future disco*
veries. He proposes dividing it primarily into Arctic
and Antarctic climates, according as they are situated
above or below the equinoctial line ; and taking twelve
degrees of latitude for each climate, he subdivides the

° Latr. ubi tupr, 3,

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 485

whole into twelve climates. Beginning at 84^ N. L. he
has seven Arctic ones, which he names polar^ sulypolar^
superior^ intermediate, supratropicaly tropical, and equu'^
iorial : but his antarctic climates, as no land has been
discovered below 60° S. L., amount only to ^ve, be-
^nning with the equatorial and terminating with the
superior. He proposes further to divide his climates
into subclimates, by means of certain meridian lines; se-
parating thus the old world from the ne^j and sub-
dividing the,^>r»ier into two great portions, — an eastern^
beginning with India, and a ^western, terminating with
Persia. He proposes further that each climate should
be considered as having 24° of longitude, as well as 12°
of latitude^. In this chart of insect Geography he
states that he has endeavoured to make his climates agree
with the actual distribution of insects^ ; and it should
seem that in many cases such an agreement actually does
take place : yet the division of the globe into climates by
equivalent parallels and meridians, wears the appeiEirance
of an artificial and arbitrary system, rather than of one
according with nature.

He has also pointed out another index to insect cli-
mates, borrowed from the Flora of a country. Southern
forms in Entomology, he observes, commence where tlie
V2n^ begins to prosper by the sole influence of the mean
temperature ; that they are dominant where the olive is
cultivated ; that species still more southern are coinpa^
triots of the orange and palmetto ; and that some equa-
torial genera accompany the date^ the sugar-cane, the
indigo, and banana^. The idea is very ingenious, arid,

X

486 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

under j^ertiun limitl^tiOns, supplies a us^ftd, and certain
criterion. For though none of these plants are untver'
sal in isothermal parallels of latitude; yet, as plants are
more conspicuous thaa insects, the Entomologist, fur-
nished with an index of this kind, may by it be di-
rected in his researches for them; and in all pountries
in which there is a material change of the climate^ as
in France, there will be a proportional change in the
vegetable accompanied by one in the insect produc-
tions*

ii. In considering the range of insects I shall first ad-
vert to that of individual species. At the extremie limits
of phanerogamous vegetation ^e find a species of hum-
ble-bee {JBombus arcticm K.), which, though it is not
known to leave the Arctic circle, has a very esLtensive
range to ihe *mestmard of the meridiaa of Greenwich,
having been traced from Greenland to Melville Island ;
while to the eastward of that meridian it has not been
met with. In Lapland its place appears to be occupied
by B* alpinus and lapponicus^ with the former of wiiicb,
though quite distinct, it was confounded by O. Fahii-
cius ; but whether th&e range fiirther eastward of that
meridian has not b^en ascertained. From its being
found ih the Lapland Mps\ it may be conjectured that
BMlpinus ranges as high on this side as B. arcticus on the
other, and may perhaps be found in Nom %emhUu S(»ne
species that have been taken in Arctic regions are not
confined to them. Of this kind is Dytiscus marginaUsj
which appears common in Greenland, abundant in Bri-
tain, and is dispersed over all Europe ; while D. UUiS'

■ See above, p. 484*

G£QGIUPHICAL DISTBIBUTION OF INSECTS, 487

simus is more confined, neither ranging so &r to the north
or south; and thou^ found in Germany, not yet dis*
covered in Britain. Other species have a still more exten-
sive range, and are common to the old world and llie new.
Thus Dermestes murinusj Brachinm crepitans, Tetyra
scarabcBoides, Peniatomajuniperina, Cercopis spumariaj
Vanessa Antiopa^ JLifcana Argiolus, Hesperia Cornmoy
Vespa vulgaris, Ophion hUetm, Elophilm pendvlus, OscP'
nis Germinationis, and many besides, though sometimes
varying slightly ^, inhabit both Britain and Canada : and
though vast continents and oceans intervene between us.
New Holland, and Japan ; yet all have some insect pro-
ductions in common. With the former we possess the
painted-lady butterfly {Vanessa Cardui), with scarcely a
varying streak : and Thunberg, in his list of Japan in-
sects, has mentioned more than ,^ify species that are
found also in this country. Whether any species has a
universal range may be doubted, itnless indeed the flea
and the louse may be excepted. On the other hand,
some are. confined within very narrow limits. Apion
Ulicis for instance, iabundant upon Ulex europceus in
Britain, has not, I believe, been found upon that plant
on the continent.

- The geographical distribution of groups is, however,

&r more interesting than that of individual species : for

in considering this we see more evidently how certain

Jimctiom are devolved upon certain jfenw5, and can scan

the. great plan of Phovidence, in the creation of insects,

• M. Latrdlle {Geographies &c. 8.) seems to regard these Varieties
as distinct; in whieh case they would be the representatives of the
spedes named in the text : but the varieties are mostly so slight, as
not to afibrd any satisfactory (tistinctive characters.

488 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

more satisfiictorily than by confining our attention . ta
the latter. Groups, according to their range, may be de»
nominated either predominant^ dominant^ sub'<laminafUj
or quiescent.

I. M. Latreille has observed, that where the empire
of Mora ceases, there also terminates that of Zoology^.
Phftiphagaus animals can only exist where there are
plants; and those that are carnivorous and feed upon the
former^ must of necessity stop where they stop. Even the
gnat^ which extends its northern reign so high^, must
cease at this limit; while, where vegetation is the richest
and most abundant, there the animal productions, eq)e-
cially the insect, must be equally abundant. I call that,
therefore, a predominant group, members of which ane
found in all the countries between these points^ or from
the limits of animal-depasturing vegetation in the polar
regions to the line.

Generally speakings the carnivorous insects, whether
thalerophagous orsaprophagous, are of this description.
Caiosoma^ which devours Lepidopterous larvae, though
poor in species and individuals, is widely scattered. Cap-
tain Frankland found C.calidum in his Arctic journey;
C. laterale and curvipes inhabit tropical America^ ; C.
Chinense^ as its name indicates, is Chinese^ ; Mr. Mac-
Leay has an undescribed species from New Holland; and
C retusum was taken in Terra del Fuego. Another
genus, equally universal and richer in numbers, is the
lady-bird {Coccinella\ which keeps within due limits the

* G^o^r. Ghwr. det In*. 2. b When I described the

Melville Island insects for Captain Sabine, I received from him no
CuUces; but I afterwards saw in bis possession a genuine one Srom
thence.— K. « Linn, Trans, xii. 380—. n. 6, 7. ^ IbkU n. &

6Et»GRAPHICAT. DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 469

Aphides of every climate irom pole to pole. The Zi-
ielbdina pursue their prey botli in Greenland and New
Holland. The sapropkagous carnivora are also similarly
predominant; — ihe SilphiAu^ ihe Dermestidie, the^ro*
chelytra, the Muscida^ prey on carcases wherever the
action of the solar beam causes them to become putrid.
Many of the above insects have probably their capital
station, or that where the species are most numerous, in
or near the tropics ; but the metropolis of the Brackeb^
tra {Staphflinus L.), at least as far as we can judge from
our present catalogues, is within the temperate zone, par-
ticularly in Britain '• The coprophagous Petalocera are
most abundant in the hottest climates; but iheAphodiada:
form a predominant group : Professor Hooker took one
species in Iceland^, and it probably ascends higher;
others are found in India and China : but the metropolis
of the group is within the temperate zone. Perhaps no
genus is more completely universal than Bombus {Bre*
nnts Jur.), which, although its centre or metropolis is
likewise in the northern temperate zone^ extends from
Melville Island to the line. It is remarkable that some
of the tropical Bombi wear the external aspect of Xyh^
copa^ the kindred genus most prevalent in warm cli-
mates ; and, vice Versd^ some Xylocqpa resemble Bombi.
I have a Brazilian undescribed species of the latter ge-*
nuS) whose black body and violet-coloured wings would
almost cause it to be mistaken for a variety of X violaceai
and B. antiguensis and cqffrus F., (though their aspect
belies it,) which misled Fabricius, are true Xylocqpa. I

• 0e Jean in his catalogue gives only 434 species; while Mr. Ste*
phensy/our years ago, had 550, and has since increased the number to
above 600. ** Joumtd of a Tour in Iceland, ^2*

MO QBOaBAPHICAI* BIS^UBUTION IW INSECTS.

shall mention only one odier predominant group, but
that one of no common cdebrtty, formed of the gnats, or
genus Ctdex L. These piping pests, with their quiver--*
<^ venenatis gravida sagittis'^—- annoy man almost frcxm
the pole to the line. What remarkably distinguishes
thiem, (as was formerly observed*,) and also the Simtdium
or true mosquito,— -they appear to prevail most in the
coldest and the hottest climates, and the Laplander and
the tropical American are equally their prey; whUe the
inhabitants of the temperate zone, with some exceptions,
suJBPer but little from them : so that they may be stated to
have both an arctic and a tropical metropolis.

2. There are other groups which, though their empire
extends to the tropics, fidl short of the polar circles :»—
these I caU dominant groups. Of this description are
some of the ScarabaidiB M^L. OnthqpAagus is found
both in the old world and in the new, and in the tempe-
rate and torrid zones. Its principal seat appears to be
within the tropics, but it may almost be said to have also
a nordiem metropolis. More than one specks have
been taken in New Holland. In general, tropical insects,
exceed those of colder climates in sizes but in the genus
we are speaking of, the jEfir^eon* species are usually
larger than the Indian* Copris seems more abhorrent
of cold than its near relation Onthophagtis. C. hmarisy
which ranges northward as far as Swieden, is the only
recorded species found in Europe out of Spain. Lap-.
treille says, that all the large species of this genus are
equinoctial: but C. TmohiSy described and figured by
Fischer^found in Asia near Orenburg, northof 50®N.L.,

* Vol. I. p. 115— . *^ Entomogr. Russ. Coleopt. /.xiii./. 1.

6£OGRAPHICAIi J^IW^fBOTION 09 IN8BCTS. 491

is as big as C Gigas oi* bucepkalus. Another domi*
nant gitmpof PeUdoeerd^ remarkable for the bulk and
arms of it3 tropical species, are the mighty Dynastid^y
the giants and princes c^ the insect race. Though their
metropolis is strictly tropical, yet the scouts of their host
have wandered even as far as the south of Sweden, where
one of them, Oryctes nasia^mis^ is extremely common*
O. Grypus^ and some other species are found in South
Eurc^e; but though in a. torpid state they can endure
unhurt the severity of a Scandinavian winter, they cannot
when revived stand the cold that often pinches Britons
in the midst of summer, and therefore are unknown in
our islands^. He Sphsridiadcd^ whose metropolis is
within the northern temperate zone, extend from thence
beyond the line, since Dr. Horsfield found two species
in Java^. It is probable, indeed, that this group is pre-
dominant Some dominant groups begin at a lower la-
titude. Of this description are the carpenter-bees {XyUh'
copa)^ whose larvae are preyed upon by that of Horia^
under ti»o forms, which extend from the tropics to about
50^ N«L. Others are not common to both worlds.
Thus, while Cantharis is the gift of Providekce to Ame-
"rica as well as the old world, Mylabris is confined to the
kUier^ where its range is very extensive; — ^in Europe,
frcm South Russia to Italy and Spain ; in Asia, frc»n
Siberia to India; and in Africa, from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope ; which last
continent, to judge from our present lists, especially the

"* Ahren's Fn. Europ. i. 1. ^ Hor. Ent. 47—.

^ Annulosa^Javamca, 36.

^ See the Rev. L. Guilding's admirable Hislori/ of Xt/locopa Te^
redo and Horia maculata, Linn. Trans, xiv. 313—. /

4dd GEOGRAPHICAL DISTBIBUTION OF INSECTS.

Ticinity of the Cape, mifybe called the metropolis of the
group*. On the other hand, the B/utelidce and Chtanysj
which have a range from Canada to the tropics, (within
which is their metropolis,) are purely American groups.
Many more might be named under this head, but these
will suffice for examples.

• 3. I call those subdominaMpo\vp^vf\i\(Ai either never
enter the tropics, or those tropical ones whose range
Aoes not exceed 50° of N. L. in the old world, or
43^ in the new. I make this difference because, as
M. Latreille observes, the southern insects -which in
Europe be^n between 48^ and 49^ N. L., in America do
not reach 43^^ But though the winters in Canada,
within the same parallel as France, are longer and more
severe than those even of Great Britain or of Germany,
yet the summers are intensely hot ; so that though tropi-
cal species do not range so high, those of a tropical struc"
ture^ as Mr. W. S. MacLeay has intimated ^, maybe found
at a higher latitude in the new world than in Europe.

The genus Meloe F. affords an instance of a subdomi-
nant group of the first description. It ranges from Swe-
den to Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, and
seems a tribe almost confined to Europe, where it is not
very une(][ually distributed. Of registered species Britain
possesses the largest proportion ; but Mr. W. S. MacLeay
is of opinion that Spain is its true metropolis^. I have
a species of this genus, taken in North America by Pro-

* Out of 51 specieis described by Bilberg, ^ are Afirican, and 19

of these are from the Cape.

*» Geogr. Gener, des Ins. 18. * Hor. ErUomolog, 45,

^ Dr. Leach has described 8 British species {Linn, Trans, xi. 37.);

Dc Jean has 7 Spanish ones.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 499

fessor Peck. The splendid genus Carabus ranges stil)
further north than MelSe. A very fine species (C crt-
beUatus Adams) inhabits the polar regions of Siberia*;
but the metropolis of the group appears to be the tern"*
perate zone : some, however, have been found in northern
Afirica;^ and Sir Joseph Banks captured one in Terra del
Fuego. Of those whose range is between the tropics
and 50° N. L. we may begin with Cicada Latr. One
species, indeed, was found by Mr. Bydder a little higher,
near the New Forest, Hampshire; but, though anxiously
sought for, it has not since been discovered^. It seems,
therefore, to admit of some question whether this is od-
original as British, and may not by some accident have
been imported^. We may take Scolia for an example of
a subdominant group beginning more southward. Its
species first appear about 48° N. L., and abound in warm
climates. In general most of those insects which M. La*
treille denominates x»m<7/c7na4 — ^such BsScarahcetisM^^'L*^
Onitisj Brenius, Scaritesj Mantis, Fulgora, Tetines, Scor^^
piOf 8tc. — come under the present head, and in fact all
tropical forms that wander to any distance within the
above limits firom their metrc^olis.

4. By quiescent groups I mean those that have none,
or no high range as to latitude, from their centre or metror
polls. I say as to latitude, because these groups have often
an extensive one as to longitude. Thus, Mr. W. S. Mac-
Leay has remarked to me, that Goliathus Lam. appears

• Fischer EfUomogr. Ruts, 90 — . U viii./. 13.

^ Since the above was written, it hets been stated to me that two
were taken this year in the New Forest.

' The same observation applies to Forfictda gigantea, found at
Clirist-Church by Mr. Bingley, but which, though often sought for,
has never since been taken there.

494 GEOGRAPHTCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS*

to belt the globe, but not under one form. The types of
the genus are the vast African Ooliaths(G.g2gfait^«ttf5&c.)9
which, as well as 6. Pciyphemm^ and another brought
from Java by Dr. Horsfield, have, like Cetania^ the sca-
pulars interposed between the posterior angles of the
prothorax and the shoulders of the elytra: while the
South American species (G. micanSf &c.} have not this
projection of the scapulars ; in this resembling THcAm.
Mr. MacLeay further observes, that the female of the
Javanese Goliatkus is exactly a Cetonia^ while that of the
Brazilian is a Trichius. But quiescent groups have not
generally this ample longitudinal range. Thus, JBti«
glassa F., in both its types, — one represented by Eu, car^
datOj and the other by Eu. surinajnensiSf—^is confined to
the tropical regions of America. Doryphora^ likewise
American, seems equally confined. Asida, thou^ a
touihem genus, is not found to enter the tropics s and
Manticora and Pnewnora are in nearly the same predica-
ment.

Under the present head we may consider what may
perhaps be denominated without much impropriety en-
demial groups ; by which I mean those groups that are
regulated, as to their limits, not so much by the tempera-
ture, or the northing and southing of the latitude, as by
the general aspect and circumstances of the country.
Thus^ the vast and nearly insular continent of A/ricOj
almost as wide as it is long, and situated in or near the
tropics, instead of inland seas or sea-like rivers, is inter-
sected by parched sandy deserts, extending far and wide;
circumstances which, though in the vicinity of its streams
it is humid, impart an unusual degree- of aridity as well

* Vol.. III. p, 564.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 495

as keat to its general atmosphere ; so that it well merits
the poet's epithet, Leonum arida nuiria;; and is also pe-^
culiarly fitted for all such animals, especially insects, as
delight in a dry, sandy, hot coimtry, particularly such as
are.predaceous in their habits. America^ on the other
hand, exhibits quite an (^posite character. It is long,
and comparatively narrow ; surrounded, and almost di-
vided into two continents, by immense circumfluent
oceans; watered every where by rivers and lakes that
emulate seas: in some parts covered by interminable
forests; in others, intersected by ridges of the loftiest
mountains. These circumstances, except in its Llanos or
table-land, give a general character of humidity to its at-
mosphere, and fit it particularly for the. production of a
vast variety of peculiar {dants, and for the residence of
numerous and peculiar phytij^agous insects and other
animals^. Midway between these two continents lies a
third (for so the vast island of New Holland may be
denominated), which presents new features in its ge-
neral aspect, and consequently new forms both in its
Fl&ra and Fauna^ mixed with many old ones parallel to
those both of the new world and the old. Perhaps Eu-
r<^e and Asia, with several that are peculiar, agree more
ki their animal productions than the continents just de-
scribed.

Let us next particularize a few of the peculiar types
that distinguish particular continents and countries. The
genera Manticora, CrraphipferuSj Glaphyrus, Eurychora,
Pneumora^ Masaris, and many others, are peculiar to
Africa. In Asia alone we find Mimda^^ Euchlora M*^L.%

* Latr, Geqgraphj &c. 18 — . * Lkin, Trans, xiv. <.iii./. 4.

« Hor^ EtUom, 147.

496 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION d¥ INSECTS,

CoUiurisy Catascopus K,*, Apogonia K. \ a peculiar type of
Horia^ &c. In America^ Agra, Galerita^ Nilion^ another
type of Horioy Tetraonyx^ Mutela, Dotypkara, Jlumusy
Erotylusj Scatinus K.S CtqfeSf Corydalisj LabiduSj Heli'^
conioj Castnia^ &c« And in New Holland, Helluoj Ele^.
phastomus M^L., AnopU^nathus^ Agrostiphila M^L.^
CerapteruSj Helams^ Adelium K.9 Paropsis^ Achilus K.,.
ThynnuSf &c.

The countries bordering upon the Mediterranean, the
Black, and the Caspian seas, agree in producing similar
insects. These countries, and the Cape of Good Hope
though so distant from them, appear to be the principal
seat of Heteromerous Caleoptera^ of the genera Lixm and
Brachycemsy and of the conical Buprestes^ But the in-
sects of Guiana, on one side the Cordilleras, differ from
those of New Granada and Peru on the other ; and simi-
lar di£ferences are observed in other neighbouring coun-
tries separated by natural boundaries.

iii. Another head connected with the topographical
distribution of insects relates to their representation ol
each other. Here we may observe, that some insects re-,
present each other only in their JbrtUi others also in their
Junction; and others in both. I shall give some instances
of each. lil Brazil there is a group of petalocerous
beedes {Chasmodia M^L.), one of the Rtdelidce^ which in
New Holland has a representative, as to form^ iii one of
the Cetoniada {Schizorhina K.^), which, having soil

• Linn. Tram. ubi supr./. L *» Ibid. xii. t. xxi./.9. « Ibid./. 14.

^ To this genus belong Melolontha aurulenta. Ibid. 400.; and
M. sericea. Ibid. 463, * Latr. Geograph. 7.

f Cetotda airopunctata and Brotmm of lAnn. Trant* (xiL. 464
t. xxiii. /. 6.) belong to this genus.

GEOGRAPHICIAl. DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 497

mandibles, must have a different function : — it is to be
observed, however, that these insects appear to approach
each other in the series of affinities. Again, the Cava'-
bicUe may in the same country be said to have a represen-
tative in the remarkable heteromerous genus Adelium^f
which is altogether an analogy. Others are represents- .
tive only in their Jhnction. The general function of in-
sects is to remove nuisances and to check redundancies^ —
the saprophagous tribes do the one, and the thaleropha-
gous the other. In going from the poles to the line, — in
proportion as the heat increases, the quantum of work of
both kinds increases ; and new forms are either added to
the old ones, so as to increase their momentum ; or new
ones, more powerfully talented, replace the old ones, and
act in their stead : thus we see a gradual and interesting
change take place in proportion as we approach the
maximum of heat and of insect population. At the Cape,
the universal Cicindelie are aided bv Manticora; in North

is 5. Americana; in South America, Coprisbj Phananis
M^L. Again : CoUiuris and Drypta of the old world,
in the new give place to Eutrachelus and Agra. The
honey and wax of Europe, Asia, and Africa, is prepared
by bees congenerous with our common hive-bee {Apis
Latr.) ; while in America this genus is not found as a na-
tive, but is replaced by Melipona and Trigona^ ; and in
New Holland by a still different but undescribed type.
The Melolonthidce and Mutelida of the old and new
world appear to have their work done in that country by
the brilliant and numerous Anqplognatkidce, The Rhi-

* Linn, Trans, xii. t. xxii./. 2; /, xxiii,/. 7,
** LatreiUe, Geqgrapk, &c. 10.

VOL. IV. '2 K

498 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

pieera of Brazil is of a different type from that of New
Holland* The singulai' genus Cremastocheilm of Nortli
America has its representative in Africa in Genuchus K« *
The Lucani of the, rest of the world give place in New
Holland to Lamprima Latr. and Ryssonotm M*^L. — I
could produce a much greater number of examples, but
these are sufficient to explain my meaning.

Having thus given you some^ though an imperfect ac-
count, of the geographical distribution of insects, I am
next to say something concerning t3ieir local distribution
in any district, or their favourite haunts : a knowledge
of which, with rei^ect to those of our own country, is in*
dispensable to the collector.

The surface of a country consists either of mountains
hills and valley ii, or of plains. It is diversified by forest,
wood, or copse ; and watered by rivers, rivulets, lake£^
and po(ds4 Those parts that are not clothed with wood
are either open or inclosed, forming grassy downs, heaths,
pastures, meadows, morasses^ and arable land. The soil
also is equally various : — ^we find clay, loam, marl, chalk,
v^etable mould, moor, sand, &c. The mountains and
hills are either covered with a stratum of soil, or are
rocky and bare ; the arable lands are divided by living
or dead fences, the latter formed of various material%
—or else they are open, and the property only marked
out by grassy balks, &c. All these places abound in
shrubs and plants ; some local, and some generally distri-
buted. But besides the tond and its jfr«A waters, we
must look also to thie seay and its sandy, pel^bly, or rocky

* lAmu 7Vaff«. xiv. 569.

LOCAJL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 499

shores, and the sea- wrack that is cast up upon them ; the
estuaries that receive its tides ; the brackish waters and
saline marshes in its vicinity. All the above places^ wheil'
opportunity serves, the Entomologist should explore, for
iu almo^ all he will find peculiar kinds of insecjts.

As nunmtaimwA hiUs have usually 'their own Flora,-
the insects ^propriated to alpine plants can only be met
with where the pabulum is found* Here also those north-
ern insects that are isqpatient.pf a wanner climate will
lake thoir static^, if they migrate to thj^ southward*.
The pr^daceous beetles likewise sometime frequent ar
mountainous district. Carabus glabratus was first taken
by Pn^essor Hooker on Ingleborough ; and probably,
if the Welsh and Scotch mountwis.were duly inyesti^
gated by an Entomologist, many Qovelties would rewar4
bis toils. The vaUeys and plains, especially t^ose of a
sunny exposition, abound in insects. When ^e heat of
the atmosphere indisposes you for motion, you «will find
it no unprofitable or unpleasant employment, lying on
the grassi, to search for minute beetles^, which you will
there find coursing. about am<NDgst the tufts and roots of
the herbage. Thus you may procure many of the JP^^
lapAidaf which you would not otherwisie meet with. Even
when the grass is grownup, insects are fond of alighting
upon its spikeSf and thence drop or run to the ground.
Should circumstances ever carry you abroad to th^
steppes or gras5y, plains of Tartary, or to Hungary, you
would find there two or three species of the singular ge«
nus iMhrusy whidh burrows in the soil. Every hole is
inhabited by a male and female; — ^fi'om it they issue to

' See Mx>ve, p. 484.
2 K 2

500 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECHS.

attack the plants or vines ; and having cut out the heart
of a plant, go backwards like a crab with the prize to
their burrow. At the time of pairing, sometimes violent
battles, encouraged by the female, take place between the
male and a stranger of that sex desirous of admission,
which cease only with the death or flight of the stranger*.
The vicinity and borders of ixioods generaUy abound in
insects of every Order; and if you proceed, as hereafter
directed, will furnish you with numerous prized espe-i
ciatly of Lepidoptera. Here alone you can meet with the'
purple emperor butterfly {Apatura Iris); and if properly
equipped you may readily secure him.

The *maters you will find nearly as prolific in insects as
the land. In them, amongst the beetles, you may expect
to m^t with Dytiscusj Haliplus^ PalobiuSf Hyphydrusy
HydroporuSy Noterus, Colymbetes, and other Dyfiscidie;
the Gyrinif Hydrophili, Hydrcence^ Elophori^ &c.: under
stones, the Limnitis Miill. {Elmis Latr.}; and in the
mud, the Pami and Heteroceri. Some Spkaridiadte are
also aquatic :. I have taken more than once Cercyon Tue^
morrMbidale from the under side of a piece of wood im-
mersed in a canal ^. Even a few of the weevil tribes are
to be met with in water. Lixus paraplecticus, Tanyspky^
rus liemnce^ Bagous atrirostris^ are of this description.
A species of Ceutorhynchus Schiip. of Germar^s third fa*
mily (C Natator K.) sfwims well. On aquatic plants you
must look for Helodes and the splendid Donacue^ which,
living on submerged shoots and roots of these plants
in their larva state, continue to attend them when per-

* Fischer, Entomogr. Rust, i. 135.

■> From finding it in water, Fabricius considered this insect as a
Hi/drophilutf but it is a true Cercyon*

XOCAX. DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 501

feet Amongst the Eupodina ^—Elaphrus, NotiophiltiSy
and Bembidivm frequent humid places, as the banks of
rivers and ponds ; and in such a station, under the roots
of PotentiUa aiiserinoy Polygonum^ &c. if you should
be fortunate enough to find Omophron limbatum^ which
connects the Eupodina with the Eunechina^ you will
make a valuable addition to the list of Britbh insects*
In the waters also you will meet with many Hetero-
pterous Hemipteras as Geh^iSf Hydrometra^ and Velia
Latr., and all the Hydrocorisa or water-bugs. On aqua-
tic plants the larvae of some Lepidoptera feed, as Bo^
tys stratiotatttj potamogata, &c. Those also of the Tn-
choptera nmst be sought for in the water: and if you
should feel inclined to see an interesting collection of their
very curious co^es, Mr. Sheppard of Wrabness can gra-
tify your curiosity. Though few or no Hymenoptera fre-
quent this element, vast numbers of Diptera are there
' alone to be met with in their preparatory state, particu-
larly the gnats. We learn from HOmboldt a curious fact
with respect to those of South America, or the ZancudoSi
that, with some exceptions, these pests do not frequent
those rivers called by the natives black waters^ but only
those which they name white waters^. Of the Aptera, the
genera Hydrachna^ Elaisy and Limnockares are purely
aquatic. Several spiders will walk over the water; and
one species {Argyraneta aquatica) inhabits it ^. T!\\estag^
nant waters in your vicinity will produce different species
from running ones. Thus Haliplus eleoatus^ &c. inha-
bits only the latter^ while the majority of the Dytiscidne

,» See above, p. 392. " Penonal Narrat. E. T. v. 91—.

' See Vol. i. p. 473—.

502 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

abound most in the former : the more minute ones may
be sought for with success amongst the duckweed that
eovers a pool. I do not recolleci finding any insect in
waters absolutely saU^i but brackish waters produce
pecuKar species : in these only, Hydrtma marina occurs ;
and many of tliose large-eyed Cimicida {S(dia F., Acan^
thia Schrank), as Si saUatoria^ tittoralis^ and Zostera
occur in places wherie salt water has been* Latreille
observes, that the genus Pimelia is to be met with only
where the soil is impregnated with saline particles, or
where the species of the genus Sdlscia abound^*

Heaths^ though they do not aflford numerous insects,
•have their r^ittes. Cicindela sylvatica^ Carabus niiens
and arvensisy frequent them, and are not elsewhere to be
seen. (Jurculio nebulosusis also to be found on diem, in
places where the turf has been peeled; and some scarce
Lepid^tera. In their vicinity, in sunny sandy banks,
some of the rarer Ammcpkibe alid Pcfmpili may be taken ;
and it is here only that I have evelr m^t with Panurgu$^
X<atr. Meado^m and pasttires are; not to be neglected.
Early ih the year, when Idiey are yeUow with the blos-
soms oflianimcuimAidiosissiljesDntQdon Tarasacumf &C.,
many minute beetles, and not a few Hymencptera and
Dipteruy frequent them. Morasses also have their pectt*
liar insects. In these yoii will ineet with some of die
scarcer 'Eupodink.; as CAkenia hohsericia and n^ri"
comisf BleiMsus mtdiipuHctaiusj various Bembidta, &c.
In this kind of district in the Isle of Ely Apkodius pia-

* A speeieg of Gyrinut (G. Viola aqtuUica)y described by Modeer
{Lmn. S^it. Nat. Ed. Gmel. i. 161^. n. 9.> is said to inhabit saU
water.

^ Geograph. Scc.e. ' Apis. *. a. Moh. Ap. Angl. ii. 178—.

U)CAh jAstribution of insects* 50$

giaius h^^ been taken^ and that scarce and beautiful but<f
terfly La^Mna Virgaurfa. . Wh^re land is cultivated the
EntoiQolqgi^t as w§ll as the farp[^er may expect a, harvest.
Jlisfspts in g^p^ral are fond of perphing on the sununit of
a bladp of grfuss pr corn ; and many minute ones mity b^
taken coursing abo^t in tl^e ear$ of the latter: some to de-
vpur theJungiUi that infest ^^ gra^in^ as Phalacrtis corruS"
eus inHeticulafiaSegetum^ others to attack thegrain itself^
as Qecidomyia, Jriticii others to destroy these destroyers,
as .three little parasites belonging to the Ichneumones mi'
nuti J^,*. But I have already mentioned most of those in-
$e.ct3 that are to be expected in such situations^: I shall
therefor^ only further observe, that upon 6ar/^p^icularly
you will meet with the speciesof Latreille's genus Cephm.

With respect to soiUy those that are light appetgr to be
mo$t prolific in insects. Warm sandy banks are fre-
quented by Cicindela campestrisy Opatrtm sabidosum, He*
lops quisquiiiusj ^c. : in them (when of a southern aspect)
Ammophike^ Pompili^ and numerous JE^^enop/^a nidifi-
cate. Chalk also attracts various insects. Latreille ol>-
serves, that the I4cini^ Papilio Cleopatra^ several species
of DasyteSi and some LamicB^ delight in this kind of soil ^ :
—in iny o)yn i^eighboi^rhopd I have observed Lycaina Co'
ry^jon principally in chalk-rpits. One of these pits, under
a vfopd in ap adjoining parish, has produced me seyerid
3^9luable inserts. Here I took. Apion eheninum^ Orobitis
globosuSf A new species of Eoastheim Gray., several of the
r^rer Pselaphidte and Pholevce, apd Chatqphora cfetifera
before noticed^. I do not mean, however, .tha4; all these

a

Litm. Trans, iv. 30—. v. 96—. t. iv. ^ Vol. I, Lvxtxe VI.
Geograph. &c. 6. •* Vol. II. p. 258.

504 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

are properly chalk insects ; but tfaey fall into these pits,
where they are readily discerned, from the contrast of
their colours with the whiteness of the chalk. By ^vraU^h-
iiig attentively the bottom of one^ vast numbers in a inrarni
day may be taken when they fall or are dimbin^ up-
wards. Of all soils clay offers the fewest inducements to
the Entomologist, who will lose both his time and labour
in a clay- pit; while in one of sand, chalk, or marl they
will usually not be mispent. Vegetable earth also aflfbrds
a harbour to various larvsB, and the pupae of many ni^bt-
fliers amongst the Lepidaptera^ by dicing in it, espe-
cially under trees, may be obtained. Even the bare rocks
have their insect frequenters that take shelter in their fis-
sures ; and in the early part of your career especially you
should always turn over large stones, as beneath them
many of the Harpalida and other Eupodina frequently
lie hid : and in this situation, both in Sufiblk and Sussex,
t/ymechusa emarginata, one of our scarcest Brachefytra
Latr., has been taken. Old treei^ also, and planks that
have laid long without being moved, oflen afford a shelter
to many of the minute Coleoptera; as P^elaphid^j Aleo-
charicUej CryptophagidiSj Scytnniday &c. Lave fences,
especially when the hawthorn is in blossom, and where
trees are also intermixed, are attended by innumerable
insects of almost every description; and even the black-
thorn will present you with one of our most splendid
weevils {Rhynchites Bacchus), Dead fences are almost
as fertile in insects as living ones. In gates, postSj rails,
and other timber when felled, the timber-devouring
tribes take their station : — between the bark and the '
wood are the BostricidcCi in the wood itself, the Ano-
bida and the Capricorn beetles. Here also you may meet

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 505

with many Hymenopteray which either devour timber or
nidificate in it, — as the Siricidaj Chelostoma^ TrypoayUmj
Sapyga^ and several Diptera. In the decaying hedge-
stakes and sticks, where the SpJueria decorticans has
turned off the bark, you may meet with JMhribus brevi'
rostris ; with A, latirostrisy and other beetles, in S.Jraxi"
nea : and A» dUnnnSy which I have more than once cap-
tured as it was emerging from the fissure of a gate-post,
probably feeds on some internal fungus. The grassy
balks that separate open fields usually abound in umbel-
liferous plants, which are attended by numerous Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera^ particularly by the various species of
the splendid tribe of Chrysidce: and the grassy banks of
fences, where the aspect is sunny, are generally bored by
a variety of insects of the former Order, to prepare a nest
for their young. Andrenidce and Nomadidie particularly
select this situation, the latter probably depositing their
eggs in the burrows of the former*. By watching these
places in the spring, you may perhaps have the good for-
tune to meet with a Stylops. It is singular, that some
insects choose, for their own residence or that of their
young, the hardest and most trodden pathways. Thus,
some ants will build their subterranean apartments un-
der gravel walks ; and so do many species of the genus
Halictus^f the habits and economy of which have been
so ably detailed by M. Walckenaer^ : Cerceris also, and
other Hymenapteroy will choose such places, however
public, for the site of their nests or burrows* The ground

* These, as well as Melecta, are probably a kind of Cuclli(}Uh\)ee,
Man. Ap. Angl. i. 150.
*» Melitta, # #. b. Mon, Ap. Angl, i. 138—,
•^ Memoires iur le genre Halicte,

506 ' LOCAL DISmiBfJTIOK OF INSECTS.

is SO consolidated by the constant fppt^ that they proba-
bly find such situations spare them a world of labqw, and
therefdr^ in their choice balanc^e one inconvenience by
another.

Though the sea itself, I believe, p^roduces no true /«•
^c/s, yet there are many that constantly pr occasionally
hj|unt its shores. On the sand-hills of the JS^prfolk cpast
I found .^^ialia globosa and Cicindela fiybrida. Ryn^
cJuenus horridm inhabits thistles that grpi^ near the sea.
Under the ZQstera and Fuch (ca$t up both on it$ beach and
the shores of estuaries,) many peculiar species of Certyofh
several Aphodiu and. numerous Sfaphylinida^ may often
be foimd. In this situation the rare and singular Oayte-
lus tricamh has been taken* At certain seasons of the
year ibe bea<;h a^d environs of the sea. are covered by
many ispecies of CoccinellOi which seem to bend fjiieir
course thither from the inland country, as if they were
about to emigrate^. , Wh^ the weather is ^ne and the
tide begins to retire, at the line of its highest ri^ I have
taken on the eastern coast a variety of insecU, and
amongst the rest Anomala Fmchiu The inundations of
fivers, except in the depth of winter, always b^g a
number of these little creatures, which float x>n the sur*
fece^n bits of sticky weed^ &c«; and where they d^osit
dieae articles wheii the water begins to jsubside, you may
gaiecally reap a plentiful harvest of various kinds.
. Y<m see, now, how varied is the sf:enery to which the
division of the Entomologist introduces him; that be
is never out of his way : whether on hill or in valley ; on
upland or plain; on the heath or in the forest; on the

* Vol. JL p. 9.

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OV INSECTS. 50?

land or on the water; in the heart of a country or on
its shores ;^--sti]l his game is within his reach. But in
order to enable him to pursue it with greater prospect of
success, he must recollect that not only is every face of
the country to be explored^ but both the plants and the
animals that it produces ; and that he must not turn with
disgust from even the carcase or the excrement of the
latter. As numerous species of herbivorous insectis feed
only on one kind of plant, the Entomologist, when he
discovers a scarce one, should examine it with the hope
of finding upon it a scarce insect. Sometimes it happens
that only a single opportunity occurs in a man's life of
seeing certain plants growing wild: such opportunities
should never be neglected. Some insects also inhabit a
plant in one district or season, and not in another. Thus
the most beautiful of the Apions, A. Limonii^j though the
plant it feeds upon usually abounds near the sea, I have
discovered only on the northern coast of Norfolk; and an*
other scarcely less beautiful, but more minute {A. As-
irtzgali^), though I have sought for it year after year, As"
tragalus glyciphyUus being abundant near me^ I never
found but once. The blossoms of plants as well as the
leaves must be inspected. In those of the rote, the €fe-
ionia aurata is often taken ^ ; and in the bells of the dif-
ferent species of Campanula various bees may be cap-^
tured enjoyinga luxurious repose**. Upon living^erit'
l3rate animals you must look for Ptdices, Pedictdif NitTnif
Acarif and many Dtptera^ as CEstrus^ Tahanusy Stomoays^

• Zittifc !ZV«M. ix. 78— . ti./20. ^ md.bh,Luf.\St.

* This insect does not, I believe, eat the petals of the rose, but
laps the nectar it produces. I have seen it employed upon wounded
trees lapping the sap. ^ Mon, Ap. Angl ii. 17^« ^57.

'508 SEASONS Ot INSECTS.

and the Pupipara of Latreille ; and on jdie garden*snaUs
for that curious genus Drilus^ and some AcariK The
caterpillars and pups of Lepidoptera^ &c will, as you
have heard, furnish you with numerous ichneumons^.
On dead animals you will find the various species of Sil-
phida, Nitidulidaf Dermestida^ Byrrhidie^ Chlcievie^ Sta^
philinida^ Musaida^ &c* ; and in excrement, various Sca^-
rabaida, Histerida, Aphodiada^ SphferidiadiSy the Bra^
chelytra in general, and several Diptera^. In putrescent
roots and firuits, as the turnip, the cucumber, &c«, you
may also occasionally meet with rare Coleoptertu

I must next say something upon the seasons of insects,
and their times of appearance. Those that collect honey
and pollen are generally among the first that proclaim
the approach of spring; and their appearance may be
dated firom the blossoming of certain trees and plants of
common occurrence. Other plants, accompanied by pe-
culiar insects, blossom later; and so on till we arrive at
the autumn. The earliest insect-season commences with
the flowering of the sallow {Saliw Caprea\ usually ac-
companied in the garden by that of the crocus and the
gooseberry. Then is your time to collect many species of
wild bees and Diptera not afterwards to be met with :
and various other insects now begin to emerge from their
winter quarters, or are produced fi*om the pupa. Ati"
other and later season is marked by the general blossom-
ing of the butter-cup {Ranunctdus bulbosus)^ accompanied
by the marsh-marygold {Caltha paltistris) and ladies'-
smock {Cardamine pratensis)i when you may hunt the

• See above, p. 479, note *.

»» Ibid. p» 208; and Vol. I. p. 265—. ^ JbU. p. 251—.

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 509.

pastures, meadows, and marshes with success, and take
some insects that do not show themselves later. The co«
prophagous insects are now abundant Amongst others,
Aphodius testudinarius^ a perfectly vernal species, is. now
oinl y to be taken, and usually flying* A third insect-sea-
son indicated by Flora, and a very prolific one, com-
mences with the blossoming of the hwrntham^ when you
must desert the meads for the inclosures. At this time
all nature begins to put on her gayest attire, and all her
insect tribes are now on the alert, and fill the air. They
are almost universally attracted by the sweef and lovely
blossoms of the plant just named : so that by examining
them you may entrap some of every Order, and many
that diuing the year will appear no more. Even many
of the saprophagous insects will sip nectar from these
flowers. The umbelliferous plants proclaim the Jburth
season of insects, particularly the wild carrot and parsnip.
You will scarcely ever fail to find, if the weather is ge-
nial, Hymenapterous and Dipterous insects of various ge-
nera,—especially such as have a short tongue, — engaged
in collecting the honey from those plants. Here you
may take some of the rarer Chrt/siday Crabronid/By Cer^
cerideSy &c., and occasionally even Coleoptera. The last
insect-season may be dated from the general flowering of
the thistle tribe. When these are in blossom is the best
time of all to collect the humble-bees {Bombus^\ the leaf-
cutter bees {Megachile^)y and many other Apiarice Latr.,
which alone by their long tongues can imbibe the honey
and collect the pollen of these flowers. The male hum-
ble-bees frequent them to the last^ and oflen seem as if
they were intoxicated with their sweets.

• AipM. » *. c. 2. K. ** 4pw. • ••. c. 2. «. K.

510 SEASONS OF INSECTS*

But perhaps you may prefer oonsidering the whole
summer appearance of insects as divided into three prin-
cipal seasons. This may thus be done* Their vernal
season may commence Florente Caprea^ and end Florenie
Qxyiicantha ; their summer^ Florente Oxyacantka and FUh-
rentibusUmbellatisj tiieir autumn^ Fiorentibus Umbellatis
and Florente Carduo* In the^rs^, the number of insects
will be daily increasir^; in the second (which is the har-
vest of the EntomdLogist, when his eyes and bis hands
ought to be every where), they will reach their utmost,
complement; and in the thirds they will be gradually de-
creasing in number, till they generally die, or go into
winter-quarters. At this time many minute Diptera and
Ichneumons take shelter from the weather in the windows
of our apartments. These seasons will not always exactly
correspond with our usual reckoning, and take place at
the same time; since, being regulated by our varying tem-
perature, they will be sometimes sooner and sometimes
later, sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. Though
I have not named a brumal season, because insects are.
in winter usually torpid,— yet some, as Tinea Novembris^
Geometrabrumariaf and many Tipidida^ even then make
their appearance.

If you ask. Whether it be not possible to regulate our
Entomological seasons by the appearance of insects them-
selves? I should answer, that probably this might be
done; but that further observations seem wanted to en^
able us to do it satisfactorily. Perhaps the appearance
€i Formica rttfa beginning the. business of the year might
form the: commencement of one season; the flight of the
orange-tip butterfly ( Colias Cardamines ^ ), of a second ; a

• Butterfy CoOecior^s Fade Mecum, 66. Note ".

S£ASONS OF INSECTS. 511

third might be indicated by the swarming of Meldontha
vtdgaris; a fourth, by that of M. solstHtalis ; and the
last, by the appearance in numbers ofApAodius dliaris^
which in the autumn fills every horse-dropping.

Some insects are so ephemeral, that they are to be
found in numbers only for a few days, and then disap-
pear for that season. Of this dei$cription are the Ephe^
mene^ much of whose history has been detailed to you.
Those of which De Geer has given an account {E. x/iJ^
gatd) appeared about the end of May or the beginning of
June, and continued thont 2i fortnight^ \ while those
whicK Swammerdam observed did not come forth till
the middle of June, and lasted only three days^. Hie
same period distinguished those of whidi Reaumur has
compiled so interesting a history^ but they did not show
themselves before the middle of Atigust ^. My kind
friend Mr. Marsham not long before his death copied for
me some memoranda he had made with respect to the
sudden appearance of Cercopis bifasciata F. On one
occasion the white dress of a lady sitting upon a hay-
cock was covered by these insects; but on the following
day the same steps were taken at the same time to pro-
cure some, when ailer the most diligent search not a
single one could be found. The same circumstance was
observed a few years afterwards by another friend of
his. He himself was of opinion that the insects in ques-
tion were then migrating^.

I may here observe, that the London amateurs have
particular seasons for collecting moths. For the itnago
they go into the woods in Aprilj May, June, and Octo^

• DeGeeru. 638— . 641—

«» Swamm. Bibl. Nat i. Conf. 114 with 103.

• Reaum. vi, 480—. ^ Vol. If. p. 11.

512 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

ber. ¥St the Itxtva they take the be^nning of Aprils
Jane, the beginning of July, and September. They dig
{or pupa late in July, and in January and February.

I shall lastly make a few observations upon the times
of action and repose of insects, the knowledge of which,
as far as it can be obtained, is of essential use to the in-
dustrious collector. Entomologists have divided the Le-
pidoptera, with a view to this circumstance, into diurnal,
crepuscular J and nocturnal; or butterflies {Papilio L.),
hawkmoths {Sphinx L.), and moths {Phakena L.). These
terms may be applied to insects in general.

i. Diurnal insects are abundant Butterflies in parti-
cular fly generally at no other time : they accompany the
sun in his course, and before he sets disappear. Some
other Lepidoptera,ihough not so named are day insects:
— such are the Zygcenid/e, &c. amongst the hawkmoths ;
and amongst the moths, Noctua Gamma, the PhytometnB
sclares of Haworth^, and some others. Numberless Co-
leoptera belong to this section. The Donaci^c fly only
when the sun is out and the air is warm ; they are then
extremely agile and difiicult to take. Some Hoplia swarm
m the day before noon, and then disappear^ : most of the
tetramerous beetles also appear to be diurnal. The Li-
bellulina and many other Neuroptera may also be so
termed; and iheHymenoptera almost universally, with the
sole exception of the Formicidce ^. Amongst the Diptera,
if we leave out the Tipularice Latr., the rest will be found
for the most part to belong to the present section.

ii. Crepuscular insects, strictly speaking, are those that

• Lepidopt. Britann. 263—. '' Linn, Trans, v. 256.

^ Vol. II. p. 96-.

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 513

appear only during the twilight, whether in the morning
or evening; but the term may be understood, with some
latitude, to signify all those insects that are seen only in
the morning and evening, though after sunrise and before
sunset. Of these, some come forth only in the mornings
others only in the evenings and others both morning and
evening. My memory only furnishes me with a single in-
stance of an insect whose principal appearance and flight
are in the morning, Hemigeometra nupta Haw. I have
often seen flying at this time, about six or seven o'clock,
and never at any other : I am not however prepared, to
assert that it does not appear in the evening or night,
but I have then never met with it In the evening more
particularly you hear the hum of the dung-beetle {Geo^
trupes Latr.), which* Linne thought the prognostic of a
following fine day ; and of the swarms of Melolontha vid^
garis and 9olstitiaMs.s Then also many other Coleoptera
are in the air ; especially before a thunder-storm, a state
of the atmosphere that particularly excites insects ^ : P/i-
nus imperialis and germanus I have never taken except
under these circumstances. Then the Ephemera sport
in the air, and lead their mystic dance. The majority
of the hawkmoths are then too on the wing^ with their
long tongues imbibing the nectar of the flowers while
they hover over them, both morning and evening.

iii. In the nighi the main body of the moihs take their
flight, as well as a vast number of Coleoptera and insects
of other orders. At this time the Blaita and crickets leave,
their hiding-places and run about : but the other GryUi
L., though they sing in the night, fly only in the day.

• See above, p 246 -.
VOL. IV. 2 L

514 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

Then also the Caro^r, like beasts of prey, leave their dark
retreats,—- in this, differing from the Cicindelce^ which are
diurnal, — and prowl about to entrap other unwary in-
sects. Then, likewise, the female glowworm hangs out
her lamp of love, and the male, led by it, wings his way
to her : and then the water beetles {Dytisci^ Gyrini, &c.)
forsake the waves and become tenants of the air.

Could we with certainty discover the stations in which
insects after their excursions take their repose, we might
capture many that we now search for in vain. Several
of these stations were pointed out in a former part of this
letter where I detailed their usual hmmts. I may here
add, that numbers of them, when reposing, conceal them-
selves from their enemies on the under side of theleates
of trees and plants. Moths, especially the NoctuidiS, may
ofien be m^t with in woods, as before observed*, on the
north side of the trunks of trees. Mr. Marsham related
to me, that once a little before sunset, observing over his
head a number of insects on the wing moving on in one
direction, he caught some of them, and they proved to be
Forficula minor L. Struck with the circumstance he
watched them several evenings ; and on one^ as he was
looking about a melon-pit for insects, he saw these little
animals alight on the frame, hastily fold up their wings,
and entering under the glasses, run down its sides and
bury themselves in the loose earth. This he observed
repeatedly. The onward flight of these insects was there^
fore evidently their return from their diurnal cmise to
their nocturnal station. — This happened in September.

• Vol. II. p. 220. See above, p. 192.

LETTER L.

ON ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS s AND
THE BEST METHODS OF COLLECTING,
BREEDING, AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

Having in my last letter given you some account of
the haunts of insects, I now proceed to describe the va-
rious instruments with which you ought to be provided,
to enable you to collect them ; and the best mode of em-
ploying each. The Entomologist when he malces an
exjswewML should have three principal objects in view,
fiwr which he ought to be duly prepared. The first is to
jfind insects, the next is to catch them, and the last when
taken to bring them s(tfe home. In exploring their
haunts he must also recollect that some will be reposing;
cudhers /ceding; others walking or running; others ^/^
ing; ofiieTs swimming ; others for^'ngf in various' places
of concealment, and in different states of existence; and
that he must be prepared with means of coming at and
capturing them under all these circumstances.*

1 . First furnish yourself with a strong knife or other in-
strument with which you can raise the bark or penetrate
the wood of any tree, when circumstances indicate that in-
sects are busy below the one or within the other. There

2l2

516 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

is no better tool for this and other purposes than Mn
Samouelle's digger ^ which consists of an iron five inches
long, rather more than one-third of an inch in diameter,
forming a curve towards the extremity, terminating in a
lozenge-shaped point, and strongly fixed in a wooden
handle *• With this you may not only explore the in-
terior of timber-trees, but grub up the turf under them,
and examine the earth for the pupae of Leptdoptera.
When your object is merely this latier purpose, a po-
tato-fork— which is better than a spade, as it will seldom
injure the pupae — will be your best implement.

2. Next have a sticky to resemble a common walking-
stick, sufficiently stout to beat the branches of the trees
and shrubs, fitted at one end with a male screw, and at
the other with a female, with a brass cap to screw over
each to keep the dirt from them. Besides this, you may
carry with you a spare piece or two about a foot long,
properly equipped to screw to it when you want to
lengthen it.

3. Another implement must be a bag-net^. This con-
sists of a hoop of stout brass wire about nine inches or
a foot in diameter, with a socket to receive the end of
your stick, or, what is more secure, a screw to fix it to it,
with a bag of gauze, muslin, or fine canvass, about twelve .
inches deep, sewed round it. The French collectors
use a net of this kind, in which the hoop is formed of
two semicircular pieces of iron or brass wire hooked to-
gether at one end, and at the other made to lap over the
corresponding piece, and pierced to receive the screw at

■ Entomologist^ s useful Compendium, L xi. /. 5.
»> Plate XXIV. Fig. 1.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 517

one end of your stick. When not employed, they double
the hoop and conceal it under the vest ; they fix to it a
muslin bag of two feet long. This net is made to serve
various purposes. With it they catch Leptdoptera and
other^f ngf insects ; and an adroit collector by giving it a
certain twist completely closes the mouth, so as to prevent
the escape of his captives. Fixed to a very long pole
(Mr. Haworth says it should be tisaenty or thirty feet
long *), it is the best net for the purple emperor butterfly
{Apatura Iris). It is also used with success to push he-
fore you through the grass of meadows, woods, &c., and
thus often displaces numerous insects, which fall into it:
— every now and then it is examined, and the valuable
captures secured. The common bag-net will perform
the same operations^ but is not deep enough (or ^ying
insects. If you lengthen your stick before you screw it
on, it enables you to brush with it the weeds at the sides
and bottom of ditches. This employment of brushing
the grass, &c. may be carried on if you are walking with
any friend not interested in Entomology, without much
interruption of conversation. For this last operation—^
sweeping the grass, &c. — if you wish at any time to de-
vote a morning wholly to it, you will find a net invented
by Mr. PauL of Starston in Norfolk, and which he em-
ploys to clear his turnips oi Haltica Nemorum^^ a very
useful implement. The accompanying figure will give
you a better idea of it than any description^; you may
make it large or small according to your convenience:
the wider it is^ the greater space it will brush at once.

> Lepidopt, Britann. 20, ^ Vol. I. p. 186.

• Plate XXIV. Fig. 3.

519 ^NTOMOLOGiCAI. IN8TRUMENTS» &C

W^W-yotir object is a mor^ general investigatioo, Hm
bag^iiel just described is preferable.

4« Scarcely aiiy iofplemept seems a greater fayoorite
with Bntkb cc^lecUurs thai) vhajt may be called the ^y^
netK This is uniyerially emi^yed by them for cap-^
turingjf^';^ insects, especially Lepidoptera* It is simi-
lar to what is called a bat-fowling nety and shonld be
made <^ green or white gaiize or coarse muslin* The
former colour, as beiog less visible, is most proper for
Tnothingyxi the nights but the latter is best for the day^
as this net is usefol to bold under the branches of trees
and shrubs to receive the insects that &U when they are
beaten. The rods for the net we are considering,-*--^hich
should be about five feet long, half an inch in diameter
at the base, and gradually tapering to the endyr^must be
made oSsome tough wood; each should consist of about
four joints fpic the conyenieiice of ei^rriage» and each
joint should be fitted with a socket at the lov^ ex-^
tremity, to re^ve the top of the joint below it; the ter«
minal joint must either be bent into a curves or fitted
with an aiaguhr socket or ferrule* so as to form an ob-
tase angle with the rest Qf the rod^. The gauze which is
to form the net, being cut into the requisite shape, should
be wdted round, except at the bottom, where it should
have a deep fold or a bag for preve^tiug toe escape of
die included insects— in order to form a slide for the
rods to islip b. At the apex where they meet, a few
stitches should be set, or a piece of leather sewed in, to
prevent their going too far. At the bottom^ oil each
side, two strings must be sewed on the net, to receive

* Plate XXIV. Pig. 4. ^ Samouelle's Compendium, t. ii,f, 1,2.

BKTOMOIiOGfCAL INSTRUMENTS, fiCC 519

wUeh there must be a hole in e^i rod about six inches
from the bottom : these must be tied, which will keep the
net fircm slipping upwards. When you go after motlis
and otlier insects that fly in the nighty a jdan, as I am
told,, of some of the London collectors may be adopted
with advantage. Cause a lanthorn to be made with a
concave back, and furnished with a reflector ; this must
be fastened, by means of a strap, upon the stomachs If
you hold your expanded fly»net before this (as nocturnal
insects fly to the light), you may thus enlrapa considera-
ble number* In sultry summer nights also^ if you place a
candle on a table in a summer-house, or even in a com-
mon apartment^ and open the windows, you will oflien
have excellent sport, and take insects you might oth^«
wise never meet with.

When you use your fly-oet^ you must take the rods
(Xie in each hand, so as to keqp it extended; and when
you have brought it €urly bejrond the ins&ct you are pur-
suing,— ^to accomplish whidi you must be upon the alert,
-you murt bring the two sticks together, which, if y«»
are commonly dexterous, will.ciqpture your prey. This
net is likewise useful in taking winged insects when at
rest upon the ground, by simply spreading it over them.
When you use it to beat into, as above reconnnended^
you must take both the sticks in one hand, and ex-
»tend it by crossing them as much as you can. In the
absence of this, a common umbrella, or even a sheet of
stiff paper which you may carry folded in your podcet,
are no bad substitutes. When your object is beating
the bushes, bring your fly-net, &c. rapidly under the
branches you mean to operate upon, or the insects. will
fall from them to the ground before you dre prepared.

520 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTItUMBHTSfy &C

. Uiideir diis bead I may mention ny&ry i^genious-iiet
for taking Lepidoptera, paiticnlarly butterfiUs^ invei^ed
by Dr*> Maclean of Ck>lobester, wbicb IwocrldcaAJUoc-
ieatis elastic net. It is. constructed of two piaoea^of
stout spUt cane, connected by a joint at each ^id and
.:with,arod which lies between them, in which a pulley is
£xed ; through this a cord fastened to the canes passes :
2L long cane with a ferrule receives the lower end of the
rod and forms a handle; and to the canes is fiistened a
net of green gauze. Taking the hiandle in.your.ri^t
hand, and the string in your left, when you pull the lat-
ter the canes bend till they form a hoop, and the net
appended to them is open ; when your prey is in it, re-
lax the cord, and the canes become straight and close the
mouth of the net, keeping them close with your left hand,
you: may soon disable your prey with your right*. Dn
Maclean has scarcely ever found this net fail.

5. Another instrument which should be constantly in
the hands of the Entomologist is the forceps^. This is
particularly useful for catching Diptera and Hymens
ptera chi^y while at rest on the leaves and flowers of
plants. Both these tribes are usually too agile to be
taken by the hand alone, which besides without this
contrivance would be exposed to the stings of many of
the latter. The leaves of the forceps should be octagonal^
five or six inches in diameter, and covered with green
gauze, or rather very fine catgut, which will enable the
head of a lace-pin to pass through it You must direct
your artisan to make the joint of the handle nearer the
rings for the finger and thumb than to the leaves, or the
instrument will not open well. An old pair of curling-

"" Plate XXIV. Fig. 5.

.BN'TOMOLOaiCAX. INSTRUMfilVTS, .&C. '521

•ifons ibi^t be madeinto veiy good handles; l)iit the hoop
to which the catgut isfasteiied should be brass, or if iron
it ought'to be painted to secure it from iiist Some make
'the leaves of the forcq)s round: but when an insect is
perched ona wall or ^myverticdl surface, it has less diance
lof escape if you can apply a stra^ht side to its station.
The; Germans use a much longer and larger instrument
of this kind, having leaves of ten or twelve inches in dia-
meterj which they use to catch Lepidoptera when settled
on plants. When you aim at an insect with your for-
ceps, you must ^cpand the leaves as much as possible,
and cautk>usly approach your prey; and when within
reach, close them upon it suddenly, including the leiaf or
flower on which it rests; As these are sometimes bulky,
and prevent the instrument from shutting closely, — ^that
the included insect may not escape, it is often necessary
to use the other hand to bring them together, when the
pressure of the finger and thumb soon disables it
. 6. Asthett?a[f^^, whether running or stagnant, as well
«as the earth and the air, teem with insects, you must
Kkewise be provided with a net of a different description
from any of the preceding, that you may fiA them out.
It may be made of fine canvass, just deep enough to prie^
vent the insect from jumping Out, and fastened to a brass
ho<^ five or six inches in diameter, not perfectly circu-
lar, but having the segment of a circle cutoff anterioriy,
so that it will apply well to a flat vertical sur&ce; and
fitted posteriorly with a socket, to receive the end of
your stick; or, what is better, with a screWy which will
securely fasten it to it*. In using this net, different

"^ Plate XXIV. Fig. 2. N.B. The net is represented too shallow
in this figure.

5SS ENTOMOdLOGICAL nfSOOISmmVtB, &G.

flondes caay^ Adopted. ,¥oa may djdxr watch the mc^
tions of an indiyidiud iaaect^ and seeiire it by dartmg
the net beyond it and drawmg it totvards yon; or by
placJBg it:quietly nader it^ and then elevatixig it suddenly;
0r yon may push your net at randinn alcmg the margins
of the pools and riyers lunongst the weeds, && ; amongst
the dodk-weed {Lemna) on then: soxface, or the mud at
the bottom; and when you examine its contents, yoa
wiU c&exi find valuable captures, i have liius somethnes
got rich booty in the most unlikely places ;*— sudi as Ify'
drana KugdUmni {langipa^pis Marsh), md an allied
nondesmpt species, &c; and by fishing amongst ZaiU^
ekeUia pabtstrisj MacropleaZostera:. If at any time you
do not happen to have your water«'net with you, with a
common rake you may take the duck-weed fnxn the sur-
face €^a pool, and upon examination yon will often detect
amongst it many minute water-beetles.

But besides aU these implements you will find your
finger and Mtund a very lumdy forceps when insects are
staidonary or walking upon the ground ; and even when
fljdng, minute ones that you would not otherwise meet
witjbi may be taken by the pahn of your hand, wetted
with saliva, if, when you see them swarming inthe air,
you pass it to and fro ambngst them. When such are
stationary, or moving on the ground, on rails, the trunks
* ef trees, &c., the fore-finger, so wetted, will often best
secure them ; but if they are perched on a summit or a
vertical surface, before you approach near enough to
alarm diem bring fiwrward quiedy your bag^net, and
h<dd it so that they may fill into it, if they attempt by
fining to escape you. Other methods of entrapping in-
sects may also be pursued with success. A table-«loth

sptj^tm tbe grass in the <^en paartsof ii «oedI lunce
known allure sev^al< scarce uiaects : a lad/s white dress
is ^ually attractive* An old mattress, laid at night upca
a gmss-plat, if suddenly reversed in the morning, will sup*
ply the Entomologist occasionally with good Coleopiera^
No better trap for theSUphida^ Dermestida^ ^c^ than a
piece <^ carrion, a frog, &c. The numerous insects thai
inhabit ^Kcrement of every kind, especially that pf the
cow and the horse, may be best taken by immersing
dieir pabulum in water : for this purpose, let a boy carry
a ^ade and pail to the scene of action, and filling the
pail nearly full of water begin the operation, and all the
insects lurking in the submerged dung will come to the
sur&C€^ and may be easily taken* ^

Another object <^ the cbUector of insects, when he has
oa^ entrapped them, is to bring them sc^e home. The
Ikitomolo^sts on the Continent^ I believe, generally
transfix their prey, of whatever Order, with a pin, as
soon as they are caught : but as hard ones, such as Co^
Uoptera^ HemipterOf &c., may be destroyed without in«
jury by immersion either in spirits of wine or boiling
water ; and as large beetles, if transfixed (not to mention
the unnecessary cruelty of so serving them), are apt to
whirl round upon the pin in spiteof any precaution, and
injure themselves, aud destroy other insects that are in
their way, it seems best to kill them by other more effec-
tual methods. With r^ard to those that would be
injured by immersion in any fluid, as the Lepidopieru^
Hiflnenapteroj Dij^erOf &C.9 they must be secured as
soon as taken; and after having disabled them as much
as you can without injuring them, by pressing the trunk
below the wings with the finger and thumb, th^y should

B2i ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C«

be transfixed and put into a pocket-box lined with cork.
Some use an oblong deep chip one, with paper pasted
over it, and lined at top and bottom, the top being con-
venient for setting small moths. But this you will find
not easy to open when you have an insect in one hand ;
and it is too deep for the pocket. I generally use a
mahogany one, about 7j^ inches by 4^, and 1^ deep in
the clear, corked only at the bottom, and opening by
pressing a springs which can be done with one hand.
This will contain as many of the above insects as you
will usually take in a day's excursion. When travelling,
you should jMrovide yourself with larger store-boxes, to
receive at night the finuitof the day's hunt. These may
be 18 inches square and 2^ deep, corked at top and bot-
tom; which should be of equal depth, and fit very closely,
to keep out Acarij &c. Entomologists have recourse
to various ways of bringing home insects for immersion.
For the larger ones, you must be provided with a num-
ber of small boxes, the lids of which are not liable to
come off in the pocket. If it can be done, it is best to
have only a single insect in a box. If you have several,
those tliat are predaceons in their habits will probably
devour the rest : and besides, if you open a box to put
in other insects, generally one or two of those before im-
prisoned in it will make their escape. It is best to put
the boxes containing an insect in one pocket, and the
empty ones in another. If your boxes are numbered, in
a small memorandum-book, which you should carry for
the purpose, you may make any remarks as to the food,
station, and habits of any, insect you may take, inserting
against them the number of the box or phial that contains
it, and it will be ready for fiiture use. For the smaller

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 525

beetles, &c. a number of phials, with their rims ground
down and the mouths well fitted with corks, must be pro-
vided ; but for those you do not wish to keep separate, a
wide-mouthed phial filled with spirits of wine, which soon
kills them, is the best receptacle. I have found, when at a
loss, a piece of elder, with the pith taken out to a sufiicient
depth at each end and each mouth stopped with a wooden
plug, a useful insect-box. As numerous insects inhabit
the various species of Boletiy if you go where these are
to be found, unless you are a very agile person and ex-
pert at climbing, a boy with a short light ladder will be
no useless accompaniment

Something may be said in this place upon the dress
with which the Entomologist should provide himself. I
shall not recommend to you, in imitation of the insect-
hunters in the vignette to Reaumur's second volume, to
put on a bag-wig and a velvet court-dress; but the plain
fiistian jacket with side and other pockets used by En-
glish sportsmen will very well suit your purpose ; only
let the pockets be sufficiently ample: have also an inside
one fixed on the left-hand side to receive your forceps.
You may also have a bag like a shooter's, or an angler's
basket, which may contain your nets till you want to use
them. With all your implements about you, you will
perhaps at first be stared and grinned at by the vulgar ;
but they will soon become reconciled to you, and regard
you no more than your brethren of the angle and of the
gun. Things that are unusual are too often esteemed
ridiculous ; and the philosopher whose object is to collect
and study the wonderful works of his Creator, is often
regarded by the ignorant plebeian as little short of a
madman.

526 ESTOMOLOGICAI. IKSMlSltfBtlTS, JKc

Such is the apparatus to be provided hf the entomo-
logical Nimrod : it is not often, however, that it wHl be
necessary, Except in distant excursions, to encmhber and
disfigure yourself with the whole. Even in this pursuit
more may be effected by a judicious division of labour,
than by grasping at every thing at once ; and your ac-
quisitions will in the end be more numerous, and ybtnr
acquaintance with them more intimate, if at one time
you devote yourself to the woods and hedges, another
to the pluns and meadows, a third to any heaths in your
viiinity, and a fourth to the collection of aquatic insects
whether fi-om stagnant or running waters : — shaving thus
chosen the scene of action, you may equip yourself ac-
cordin^y. You will of course, though in pursuit of a
particular description of game, not neglect to seize any
6thar insects that fall in your way ; but for this purpose
k is unnecessary to be always provided with a certain in-
sbtasoenL Dr* Franklin used to say that a man would
laenar make a Ni^uiad FhSbsopher, wi^ in pecfiirming
bis eicperiments, could not saw with a gimblet or bore
with a saw ; and so we may say, he will never make an
expert collector of insects, who on occasion cannot fish
with his hand or forceps, use his hat or an old letter to
beat his game into^ or, in the absence of boxes or botdes,
contrive to secure his captures in small pieces of paper
twisted up* Sparrman, when at the Cape, was wont, —
to the no small amazement of the wondering natives, who
took him for a conjurer, — to stick his impaled insects
round the outside of his hat^: and though I should not
rec^mend such an exhibition in a civilized region, it

* Voyage to the Cape, i. 63. Eng. Trans.

EKTOMOLOOICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 527

has ofben struck me that the cavity of a modem hat, if
lined with cork, might be made a very useful recefj^ade
for these animals in a long excursion. Indeed, an actuie
Entomologist is never at a loss for an apparatus, but often»
makes his most valuable captures when unprovided with
other instruments than his hands and eyes. A careful
survey of the trunk and branches of trees and shrubs,
particularly of the underside of their leaves, seldom fafls
to detect many a lurking moth or beetle, which may be
transfixed or otherwise captured with little trouble by an
expert hand. In this way an ingenious collector, Vho
scarcely knew what a net of any kind was, told me he had
made his whole collection, which was rather extensive.
It is, in &ct, only by thus detecting them when reposing,
and adroidy shutting them up along with the leaf on
which they sit, in a box, that the minnte Tinea L. (whose
beauty and freshness the slightest handling destroys) can'
ordinarily be taken without being injured. The boxes
containing them should afterwards be e:q)osed to the
action of heat, a low degree of which will destroy them.

Enough has been said upon the best modes of catchit^
insects: — I shall next attempt to give- you some further
instructions as to the most effectual one of destroying
them when caught, and to point out how you are to pro-
ceed with them afler they are dead. As I sufficiently
rebutted the charge of cruelty in a former letter^, it will
not be necessary to enter here into that subject*

I have before recommended to you the use of spirits
of wine, and shall here repeat my recommendation; for

• Vol. I. Lettrr IL

BSS ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS^ &C.

after several years trial, I am of Bohm's opinion, who.
had ^ed it nine years ^, that it is superior to any other
method ; particularly, because it not only e£Pectually kills
the insects, and they may be put together into it while
you are collecting, if you have no reason for keeping
them separate, of all sorts and sizes, in a wide-mouthed
phial, without danger of their devouring each other:
but when you come home wearied with a long day's
hunt, you may let your insects remain in it without in-
jury till the next morning. In collecting beetles abroad,
when there is a want of store-boxes the readiest way is
to put them into a wide-mouthed bottle or jar filled with
any spirit, and send them home in it : some few may lose
their colours, or become greasy ; but in general they will
receive little injury. This method saves room, and avoids
the risk of breakage. The derangement which some
hairy species sustain from this method may be readily
repaired by brushing them with a dry camel's hair
pencil.

When you wish to take the insects you have immersed
in spirits out of the phial, you must strain its contents
through a piece of muslin, return the spirit into it for
future use, and spread the insects separately upon blot-
ting-paper, to absorb the moisture remaining about them.
With regard to such as you have in boxes or phials with-
out spirit, these must be immersed in a basin of boiling
water. First empty into it the contents of your boxes,
and next, those of your phials ; giving each, before you
take out the cork, a smart rap, th^t the insects adhering
to the latter may drop to the bottom : or you may im-

» Illig. Afog. iii. 2%2.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 529

»

merse the phial itself^ with the cork in, which soon de-
stroys them, and is the safest plan. This done, with a
camel's-hair pencil or feather take them out of the water,
lay them upon blotting-paper to dry, and put them by for
a few hours till you have leisure to impale and set them.

Those insects that are caught by xh^ forceps would for
the most part escape you, were you to attempt to get
them out before you had transfixed them. You must
therefore, do this while the leaves of the instrument are
closed ; and then opening them, and taking the pin by
the point, the head will readily pass through the catgut;
and thus you may safely take, and more effectually kill
your specimen by pressing it, as before directed. With
xespect to Lepidoptera^ it is necessary to disable them
while yet in the fly-net, immediatelji^ after their capture.
To effect this, while one hand holds both the rods of the
closed n^t, with the other stretch the gauze so as to con-
fine your insect within a narrow space ; bring its wings
into an erect position, and prevent its fluttering : which
being done, with your finger and thumb give its breast a
strong pinch below die wings ; and then unfolding your
net, and taking it up by one of its antennae, place it
between the finger and thumb of your left hand, stick a
pin through it, and deposit it in your pocket-box.

But though nipping the breast will kill many small
Lepidoptera^ the larger ones will live long after it ; as will
likewise many Neuroptera^ Hymenoptera^ and JUptera ;
and besides this, in some Bombycida the thorax pre-
sents a very conspicuous and interesting character, which
renders it desirable, in order to avoid the damage or de-
rangement occasioned by pressure, to transfix them with-
out it To dispatch these effectually, you will find the

VOL. IV. 2 M

5S0 BNTOMOLOaiCAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

following apparatus very conyeniei^. Fix in a small tiii
saucepan ^ filled with boiling water, a tin- tube consisttng
of two pieces^ that fit into each other ; cover die moutii
of the lower one^ with a piece of gauze or canvass, and
place your insects upon it; then fix the Uf^r one^ ovesp
it, and cover also the mouth of this with gauze, &c. ; and
the steam firom the boiling water will efiectually kill your
insects without injuring their plumage. There is another
more simple mode of doing this, the appai^atus for which
may be met with everji where. Fix a piece or two of
elder, willow, or any soft wood, with the baf k on, across
the bottom of a mug, and on this stick your itnpaled in-
sects; invert the mug in a de^p- basin, into w^cb pouc
boiling water till it is covered^ holding it ^wn wkh a
knife,, &c., that the expansion of the included air may
not overturn it. In two minutes, or less, all the insecls
will be found quite dead, and not at all wetted. If the
sticks do not exactly fit, they may be wedged- in with a
piece of cork* Professor Peck, who used to put minute
insects into the hollow of a quills stepped with a piece of
wood made to fit, killed them instantaneously by holding
it over the fiame of a candlew

Haying killed your insects, your next object should
be to prepare them for your cabinet. First, pbbce by
you a pincushion well stored with lape-pins of- various
magnitudes and lengths : for most insects those nearly
an inch in length, for hu^ ones, those th^t are thickep
and longer, but for Lepidopteru^ a stouter kind; Ba short
*mkitesi are best Next, take the Gol^opters^ «id Ifr-
miptera that, as before directed, you have Ifud- by- otk

» Plate XXIV. Fig. 7. c »» Ibid, o^ b.

• Ibid. b. * Ibid. a.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 581

blotting-paper after immersion, and begin your ope-
rations, selecting the largest first. The pin should be
stuck through the middle of the right*hand elytruni'*,
and about orie third of its whofe length should emerge
above the insect Some foreign collectors,' probably
having in view its more convenient e)taniihation with a
microscc^ under the glass of a drawer, bring k nearer
the head of the pin : v^hile the English ones, on the con-
trary, studying the mdst ornamental positibn of their
specimens^ leave only enough of thte poiilt free to fix-
them safely in their drawei'S*', Both these methods are
open to objectiohb When the insect is too Aea!r the head
of the pin, it is difficult to fix it- itt your cabinet without^
bending the wire; and there is dismger, without? greats
care, of injuring the sp^cim^n-when^you put it ih* or take*
it out Again : When' the legs df ybui? insect rest oh' t&e
^rface they collect the dust and dii^t, are v^t^ liabte to«
be broken, and the length of the pin above it is in^n*'
vc^ent wfaeni you have o($dasioii to examine aiiy one^^
under a I^s. Lepidoptera^ however, which are never
thus caramined, may alwajps be trant^fixed in this> way,*
which sets them <^ to the greattsst advantage.

Some msects, especially of the beetlb tribe, are so eK-
tremely minute that it is next to an impossibility tx^ get
a pin through them without injuring, and often de&ttoy-
ifig them. By using fine needles^ or ve^y slender pins-
maaufactured on purpose, this difficulty might pep-
liaps be.surmoimted ; but the needles mil be- subject to^
rust, and the pin^ I know by experience, oaainot be^.

» Plate XXIV. Fig. 8.

* In the figure just quoted the artwt has represented the insect
as tntnsflxed in this way.

2 M 2

532 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

fixed in cork without difficulty. For such minute insects,
therefore, by far the best mode is to gitm them on small
pieces of card, which may be stuck upon a pin. Talc,
which admits the underside of an insect to be seen
through it, has been used for this purpose ; and where
^you have only a single specimen, a thin small lamina of
it would answer well; but ordinarily I should recom-
mend the former mode. Your pieces of card, which
must be small, may be either oblong and cut at the
comers for neatness, with a couple of specimens gummed
upon each, one on its belly and the other on its back ;
or you may cut little narrow card wedges, about four
Unes long and terminating in a point, upon which yoa
may so gum your insects as to show the principal part
of the under side, as well as the upper side of its body.
C!ommon gum-water made rather thin, with a. very
little glue mixed with it, will answer your purpose very
well: it should be thinly spread on the card with a
camelVhair pencil, and then the insect placed upon it.
With the same implement, if it has not been killed too
long, before the gumis dry you may expand its antennae,
palpi, legs, and wings, &c. If you want to remove a
specimen gummed on a card for any purpose, it is easily
effected by plunging it into hot water.

Other insects may be transfixed through the thorax
or upper side of the trunk ; as also those Coteoptera^ Qr^
tkoptera, and Hemiptera^ whose wings you are desirous
of expanding; only you should be careful that your pin
parses through them behind the prothoraa:.

Having impaled your insects, the next thing to be
done is to 5^ them. The best time for doing this is not
till they have begun to stiffen, but before they are become

ENTOMOlOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 533

quite stiff. If attempted soon after they are killed, the
parts, unless you keep them in the intended position by
means of pins or braces, will not retain it; and if after
they are become too stiff, they are liable to be broken.
Not (mly should the antennae and palpi be extended so
as to be readily seen; but the legs, and often the wings,
ought to be placed in their natural position ; all of which
tends much to the beauty of your specimens, and adapts
them for more ready examination. But as this operation
requires time, and beauty and regularity may be pur-,
chased too dear if at the price of hours called for by
science, you may be left to your own discretion in this
business, only you should always with a pin expand the
antennae and palpi if possible. You might, however,
both save your time and have your insects neatly set, if
you would take the trouble to instruct scHne acute and
handy youth in your neighbourhood in the modus ope-
randi^ and devolve this department upon him : and as
none are quicker and more expert in capturing insects
than boys, he might also assist you in your hunting ex-
peditions.

I do not mean, however, to leave you at liberty with
regard to the setting of Lepidopterous insects, which not
only have a much worse appearance than those of other
Orders if their wings be not regularly and uniformly
expanded, but require it for the proper display of their
characters. The necessary apparatus consists of a piece
of cork about nine inches long, four broad, and half an
inch thick, which should be made perfectly smooth, with
a piece of white paper pasted over it; and of several
narrow slips of card or braces, tapering gradually to a

5S<I J&NTOMOiX)&ICAL iN9TRUJI£aiT8| &e.

|]|^,ty of «Klferent lengdbs, frcxm half an kidi to two iacbes
or more, mih a pin fixed in c^csh at tb^ broadest end*
Tbus provided^ you may pixxseed to auction. Bat you mast
firsit decide whether, like -thie coadnejatal Ekitomologistti^
ypu mil set yaur I^idoptef^a horizoDtally; <»r, 1^ tbe
3ritish» with tibdr wings declining obliquely from the
body* If yo^ prefejr d^ f<»*sier me^od^ the body must
b.e l(ei i^lio a groov^^ aud jt^be wings e^pmded as flatly «5
possAbH the aAt^ior margin of the prii^aiy pair being
brought fe^'wiard 60 as ^ project beyond the head* But
as dpis us^fdly giy^, ^ Insect an unnatural and formal
appe9;rancie, I appneh^nd a mm of yppr taste will prefer
the pode adopted by ypur copipatriots, the C(41ectors x>f
jSrijtaiii) who ifx getting rns^ the wings form an ajogle^
varying according tp tlji^ ^ize and characters x^the insect,
wilh the body^ a^ dp not bring the antearipr wings so
forward.* The iving^ ^ bu^U^^rfli^ hP^ever, in order to
appear at all natural^ should be $et movfi horizontally*
Whiph foshion soever y^u prefer^ jtbe u^ipde of operatuag
is nearjy ^h^ same ; ojply that the English pl^n, except in
the case of some large-bodied moths or hawk-moth^ r^
quires no groove in the setting-board* After you have
i^ck jt^ ip^ect upoi^ the corl^ so as to bring its body
cjiose to its suiface, stretch the anterior wing with a needle
fixed in a handle or a camel's-hair pencil, applied to the
jcant at the base, i^ui^Sdently forward, and then confine
it by me^ns of one of your card braces :-— 'next^ do die
s^me by the opposite wing. Afterwards expand the pos-
terior wings, which must not be separated from the an^
terior so ss to leave any interval between th^m, and fix
them with braces. When you are become expert, you

£irrojffO]:.oaicAL znstrumektb, Sec. 535

wU fin^ if the fly is not l&rge^ that a skigle brace will be
8i]iBQieiit.£br each pair, of wings ^ : but sometimes, if the
card be not sidSSciently stifi^ you may confine it by a pin
near the pcHnt. You most be carefiil m Expanding die
ivings that each is brought equally forward. Lastly^
gyre the antennae th^r proper position, and if necessaiy
eoofine them with bracei^^ and leave your specimen in
an. ialry sitiinliou to dry and c^i£^. In a few days die
braces may be renfloved, and the specimen transferred to
the cabinet When you put diem away to become stifi^
^on n&aBt be oare&l to ^lace diem and your odier insects
dt m^ "whete earwigs cannot conie at them ; for in sul-
ity weather these animais will often then attack and spoil
them*

It in obvious that this process can only be performed
whfle the joints and ligaments of die insect are still
flexible; so diat small species, in warm weather^ will
often be immoveably r^id before you can have an op-
portunity of setting diem. Chi this account collectors
usually set minute moths as soon as taken, which can be
readily done on the lid of a cork-lined box. But for-
tunately both diese and specimens which have been
dried for yeaJns may be relaxed and rendered pliable by
a very sim^e process. Fill a basin more than half full
c^ sand, and saturate it with water; pour ofi^ the super-
fluous water, and cover the sand with blotting-ps^er :
into diis stick the insects you wish to relax, and cover-
ing the basin closely, leave them there for two or three
days, according to their size ; and the evaporation will
render them suflSciendy flexible for expansion or any

* Plate XXIV. Fig. 9.

536 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS^ &C.

Other purpose. Beetles may be relaxed by plunging
them for a short time in warm water or spirits of wine \

Many moths of the tribe of Tinea L. are so extremdLy
minute, that it is almost impossible to set them without
defacing their characters : indeed, the trunk of some is
so small as not to admit being pierced by a pin. These,
therefore, it is adviseable merely to gum upon card, ex-
panding their wings (which the gum will easily retain in
their proper situation) with a camel's-hair pencil. If
you have two specimens, you may fix one in the natural
position when at rest, — sl method I should recommend
with respect to other LepidqplerOy and indeed insects in
general. Pezold advises that, by way of contrast, "Bokite
card should be used for ^{ar^-coloured species of these
little moths, and black for such as are pale* As the
wings of different Coleopterous groups, as well as those of
Hymenopteraj Diptera^ &c., vary in their neuration^,
you should, whenever you can, set open the elytra and
expand the wings of one specimen at least in each group,
which will be very important to you in making out the
characters of your genera.

When sufficiently dried, your insects should be trans*
'"ferred from the setting-boards, either to their place in
your cabinet or to the store-box before described, till
you have leisure to investigate them.

However tedious some of the foregoing manipuTations
may seem, they are in fact much less so than those re-
quired in several other branches of Natural History,
where, in addition to the labour of catching^ the nice and

• Mr. Samouelle ( Useful Compendium, 321) recommends a some-
what different method.
" VoL.IILp.625-.

ENTOMOLOatCAL INSTRUMENTS, 8CC* 537

difficult task of clearing the skeleton of its muscular co-
vering, and its internal cavity of its contents, and then of
stuffing it and replacing its perished eyes by glass ones
of the proper colour, is a necessary process with every
individual. Happily the Entomologist, from the smaU-
ness of his game and the nature of their integument, is
usually spared this labour. There are some few insects,
however, in which a process in some degree analogous
is requisite, if the beauty of the specimens be a conside-
ration. Thus the abdomen of dragon-flies is very apt to
lose its colour, and that of the Melees to shrink up, if
left in their natural state: these therefore should be
eviscerated; which may be done by slitting the abdomen
longitudinally on the f^/t^i^r side, then carefully removing
its contents, and stuffing it with cotton. In the former^
a smaQ straw or stalk of hay may be used, which wfll
prevent the fractures to which that part, when dry, is sb
liable. Spiders^ and a few apterom genera, as well as al-
most all larva, as they usually shrink up, in drying, into a
shapeless mass, destitute of every character dependent on
colour or form, require to be preserved in a different man-
ner. They may all be very well kept in rectified spirits of
wine mixed with water, in the proportion of three parts
of the former to one of the latter. Each, suspended by
a thread, should be put in a separate very small labelled
phial. Larger spiders, such as Mygale aviculare, &c.,
when suffered to dry, though the abdomen shrinks, do
not wholly lose their characters, and are often kept in
cabinets : but if preserved in spirits, they may be put
into larger wide-mouthed bottles, suspended at different
heights, with a label on the outside opposite to each
species. Mr. Abbott of Georgia had an excellent method

S38 vsgrauaivomsGiiSM iNfiTRtuisNTS, &c«

of firesenriBg caferpiUars^ so that bis i^iecimeiis retain
their coloBrs and other attributes^ and look as if tiiey
unere aki^e. I am not acquainted with his process, bat
tlielbllowing will ansirar -very. welL<^^The ;aiiaiial nnist
first be IcSUed by iaHoecskia in spirits of wiae ; next you
Hiust«iri8oet«le«l9 vMchisbestefiected by gradual pres^
aose q£ the fiiq^er. and thumb* Yob must b^in at the
head^ and so piiocaed tiU all the fluid Contents of tbe
body have posacd o«^st the anus^ vrinch you o^y enlarge
mth a fine pair of seissocS) bekig oarafiil not to. injure
the anal pndi^. WSien you have dLeared the ^in as
mlidi as possible^ introduoe a &te glass tabe^ or a piece
of hoy CM* ^sicaoder straw into the anus, round whidi, as
near to the cSKtromity as may be, pass loosely a fine
threads ihenbloivnig through the tube, wfaenihe ddn»
fuUy isaflated- 'withdraw it,^ at the same time pfulliog the
thraad tight and fiecnring it by a knot. The cateipiliar
will now exhiUt its pioper shape and colours ; to retain
which, all diat is necessary is 1o hold it near the flame of
a hnnp untfl perfecdy dry, whidb will be in a §ew mi-
nutes, when it may be placed in the cabinet along with
the im^o to which it belongs ^^

Although a yoy large prc^yortion of the insect inha-
bitaots of any country may be captured in their ^perfect
state by die active Entomok^st, yet there is no small
number of them that probably he may never meet with
in that state, and to secure which he must have recourse
to other methods* He can procure jpt^^ by digging for

* Some other methods are recommended by Mr. Samouelle^ which
the reader will find in his useful Compendium, 318.

them IB "woodi^ isider trees, &c., as above directed*,
keeping th^n m ,^me pf their Dative eartk till they esre
dlficlos^j -^r he romat collect Zfl^rv^, and breed ^m^ fi»*
whi^h I ^sball Jkow-gifm you some iiistpaotioii& — The in-
sects we are fiartJCfdarly Qonoeriied with aader this head
ar^ ithe ;cater]^lars of Lepidoj^era and of the saw-flies
( Tet^ttredo L.)» If, hoivever, in our entomological ram-
blies wfi iii««0ver the larvse -of iMects -of iMer Orders
mpoa ihek uppropriibte lood, ^e Misy oAen attempt to
l^ti^Qd tbe^i wJith success s hut as you will seldom thus
g^ ^pecias that you liiU not also meet widi in their
m^^^ s^^ 99ad the geaaieml directaoaa for biveeding will
iiudade almost ,aUt I shall pridcipaUy ^copsider the best
i^aode of jbii:eediuig mterymars and pseudoHcatefffiUars.
Tlite &st dMogis to collect them. In bes^is^ the trees,
bushes, wid.pifuits, while imntmg for Coleeptem, &c«, Ihe
Eialiomolegjiit will o^;eu displaoe caterpilki's, whidb, if
unkuo¥^ he ahould put into apilirhoif with a portion^
tbeir &Qd: hut Ijepidtypterists o&en saJiy into the woods,
&;{V» for the express purposie. of coUectkig these only.
When eflfegfiged Jn t3m jempioyment, the best pl^i k to
teks a sheet with you, and wh^ you mean to beat the
b^ranches of any tree, place it as near tbemt as you can,
upon lour or more sticks fasisened in ibe ground, so as to
leave the ixppex surface concave, and it will receive die
falling 4»terptllars wh^i you beat. If you aim at the
pseudixaterpillars of ihe Cimbicidis, you must turn your
attention pdrincapally to the different species of sallpws
and willows {Salts: L.)* Your spoils you will put into
boxes with their food, ns above directed, to bring them
home*

* See above, p. 516.

540 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

There are several kinds of boxes recommended to re-
ceive, them and breed them in. If your only object is to
get the perfect insect, a cubical box of moderate dimen-
sions, glazed in front or on one side to enable you to
watch their proceedings, with the other sides and top
fitted with fine canvass for the admission of air, will very
well answer this purpose ; or your box may be canvassed
all round, with a door in front*. In this you may place
a small garden-pot filled with earth, with a phial of
water plunged in it to receive the insects' food. This
might be moved, when you wish to change the water,
without disturbing the earth, which should be kept some-
what moist The earth is for those caterpillars whose
pupae are subterranean. But as you will probably wish
to proceed scientifically, and ascertain precisely the moth
that comes from each caterpillar, I should strongly re-
commend to you a box invented by Mr. Stephens, which
he describes m a letter to me in nearly these words: —
<< Hie length of the box is 20 inches, height 12, and
breadth 6 ; and it is divided into Jive compartments. Its
lower half is constructed intirely of wood, and the upper
of coarse gauze stretched upon wooden or wire frames :
each compartment has a separate door, and is moreover
frimished with a phial in the centre for the purpose of
containing water, in which the food is kept fresh ; and is
half-filled with a mixture of fine earth and the dust from
the inside of rotten trees ; the latter article being added
for the purpose of rendering the former less binding upon
the pupae, as well as being highly important for the use
of such larvae as construct their cocoons of rotten wood.
The chief advantages of a breeding cage of the above

" Plate XXIV. Fig. 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL IKSTUUMENTS, &C. 5*1

construction are, the occupation of less room than five
separate cages, and a diminution of expense ; both im-
portant considerations when any person is engaged ex-
tensively in rearing insects. Whatever be the construc-
tion of the box, it is highly necessary that the larvae be
constantly supplied with fresh food, and that the earth at
the bottom should be kept damp. To accomplish the
latter object, I keep a thick layer of moss upon the sur-
&ce, which I take out occasionally (perhaps once a week
during hot weather, and once a fortnight or three weeks
in winter), and saturate completely with water, and return
it to its place: this keeps up a sufficient supply of moisture,
without allowing the earth to become too wet, which is
equally injurious to the pupae with too much aridity. By
numbering the cells, and keeping a register correspond-
ing with the numbers, the history of any particular larva
or brood may be traced."

In attending to your insects in their cells, your expec-
tations will sometinles be disappointed, when, instead of a
butterfly or moth, you find only an Ichneumon. But this
you must not regard as all misfortune ; for by this means
ypu will be better instructed in the history of each species,
and learn to the attack of what enemies it is exposed :
and thus you may get many species of these parasitic de-
vourers of insects that you would not elsewhere meet
with. If your caterpillars, however, appear to be of a
rare kind, you must watch, and often examine them ; and
if you discover black specks upon any one, that appear
unnatural or like nits, they may be extracted, Mr* Ha^
worth assures us*, by a pair of small pliers; and if the
operation is adroitly performed, the caterpillar will reco-

* LepidopU Britann, 87.

S4£ SKTOMOI^GI^AL INSTRU»I£IITS, ftc

Ter and do well. You will often meet Lepidopterous^
kurvaB traveUing over roads and pathways :. ftt sucih times^
ihey h&^fe usually done feeding, and are seeking n spue
in which they may assume the pi^ witli safety. Thestf
you* may place m one of your cells, and they will select)
a station for themselves. You must be .careM fireqisently
to examine the boxes in which you have pupae, that you
may take* the imago as soon as it a{>peaTs,' and before it
has had time ta injmre itself in- attempting to escape. I-
mentioned to you on a former occasion Reaumur's expe^
rknents to accelerate the appairance of die butter%^ ;->-
there is- another still more remai*kable, to whieh he ha^
recouarse for this purpose: it was by hatcking*his:papt&'
under a hen!/ You-' wDlt wonder, perhapfii, how thas^
could be ^ected, and be disused to maintain t^it die'
pupas must be crushed by the wei^t of die brooding*
animaL How did the ingenious and illustvidtts expe»
rimentalist prevent this ? He prepared ^ hdlow- bdl of
giassy open at one end, about; tiie shi^e and' dss^ of af
tarkefs^ eggk Hiaving several chrysalises of the. netU^^
butiteiAy {Vanessa 17r^^aF) suspended to a pi^ee of paper,
he cut out some of these singly^ with a; squaro portinmof
the paper attached to- them, and covered widi pasle the^
side opposite to tiiat from whieb the chrysidis was susf-^
pended: tliese he introdliced' intO' the ball throij^' ther
qserture^ placing them as neap to each other as posaUe^-
taking care so to apply diepastedsur&iee to theinsidts^^
the bidl, diat when the side to M4iich tliey wet^&Eed^ Wasi
uppermost they all hung as ftom a vault* Tbis^ being'
done, he stopped' the f^rltire witlva lihen pl^^ but AMf

• Vol, IIL p. 368-.

£1«TOMOZ«OOICAL INSTBUMBNTS, &;c. S43>

SO completdiy as to cut oBl aJi comnuinkation with the
^mospbere: he next placed thtt egg under a hen? that?
had been skkmg some da^s^ ysho' alwf^s-kept ib at die
side of the nest,, where it nevertheless derived benefit
fixxa her ifieubation.. After the first day its inleriov
was covered with yapour transpired by the dbvjrsalises;
Upon tU& Beaomor teiok the ^g^ and removing the
linen plug it soon became- dry again : he replaced- iM
under the hen, and no vapour afterwards speared; In
about^^M^ days the first tmtterily ever hatched imder a
hen made its appearance;, it wo»M probably have re-^
quired,^Mir^^» under ordinary okEcnmstanGes* He- tried
the same experiment with some Diptei^ous pupseVbutthe
heat was. too great for th^n, and th^ all peri^ed^.

Having properly prepared and set your specimens^as
above directed, the nj^i^ step, when, th^ ha;re remained
a soffident time to be perfectly dvy^ is i» placetthem. hx
your cabinet If you collect ^^^^^ insects as^ well a»
BritiA, you may eitfaer preserve the latter' in a separate
cabinet^ or keep both in tfae8»ne,,di8taixgiiisliisg'the m^
digenous species by apaarticularmack.. The letter !&in
red ink, if the> pin which transfixes the insect be run
through it, or^ in the case o£ Lepid^tera^ placed before
the specimen^ would he a very distinct and^ sufficient in-
dication of them. The drawers of your cabinets, should
be about 18 inches^ square^, and from' the glass to &e
corked bottom about an inch -and a half in depth r bu^
thelaiger Dynastidoi, osMegasama' Actaanf &c., will re^
quire tWQ in^hesi The frame of) the-glass should-be rri^

*: Heaumurii, 12-^^

544 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C;

beted underneath ; and parallel with the . sides of the
drawer, but a little lower, there should be inner side^
pieces fixed, so as to form a cavity all round of a proper
width to closely receive the rabbet, and likewise to con-
tain the camphor for preserving your insects from the
attack of Acarif &c.; to emit the scent of which, many
holes should be bored in the side-pieces. Each cabinet
may contain Jbrty of these drawers in a double series,
protected by folding doors; and you may place one ca^
binet upon another, if your space admits it. You wOl
find a tool used by bell-hangers for cutting their wire
very, qonvenient to behead or otherwise curtail the pins^^
as those with which foreign- insects are transfixed are
often too long. If you cut them off below the insect, cut
them obliquely, which will leave a point that will enter
the cork.

When. your drawers are smoothly corked^ and neatly
papered, first divide each transversely by ajidl black
line; parallel with this, on. each side, draw a line with
red ink: then, for arranging. your insects, draw pencil
linps, which are easily obliterated, . at right angles with
the others, according to the general size of the insects
that are ,to occupy them. Insects look better thus ar-
ranged in double columns, than if the pencil lines tra-
versed the whole width of the drawers. In arranging
them, you may either place them in a straight line be-
tween the pencil lines, — which I think is best,— or upon
them. You will begin your columns from the red lines
in the middle, and not from the sides of the drawer: thus
the heads of those on one side of it will be in. an opposite

' See Mr. Samoudle's Compendium, 311.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. $45

direction to those oii the other* Where your puis are very
fine and weak, you must make a hole first with a com-
mon lace^pm; otherwise, in forcing them into the cork,
they will bend* In labelling your specimens, you should
stick the appellation of the genus or subgenus with a
pin before the species that belong to it As to the species
themselyes, you may either number them 1, 2, 3, &c,
sticking the pin they are upon through the number, and
denoting them by a corresponding one in your catali^e;
or you may at once write the trivial name, with the ini*
dal of the genus upon a label transfixed in the same
manner* Lepidoptera cannot easily be arranged in co-
lumns. Perhaps if squares, corresponding with the size
and number of the specimens of any given species you
wish to preserve, were made with pencil, a label of the
trivial name of the species, or a number being placed at
its bead, it would be as good a way as any other. But
every one must be left to his own taste in these matters.
Wherever you can, procure a specimen of each sea: of
an insect, and where important characters require it, let
some of your Lepidopterous specimens exhibit the under
side of the wings.

In arranging insects in your cabinet, if you wish to
have it scientific, as much as the nature of the subject
will admit, follow the series of affinities; hut you may re-
serve a few drawers to place in contrast analogous forms.
As your numbers of species increase you will have to alter
your arrangement; but as pencil lines are easily rubbed
out, this will occasion you less trouble than if they were
drawn with ink. You should always be careful under
each genus to leave space for new species.
' As certain Acari, Tineid€e9 Ptinida, &c., prey upon

* VOL. IV. 2 N

546 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

dead insects, you will of course wish to know how th^
may be kept out of your drawers, or banished when de*
tected there. Camphor is the general remedy reoom-
niended. The cairify dosed by the rabbet of tlie j^ass
frame aifi>rds a good receptacle for this necessary article:
put some roughly powdered into each side, and be care-
ful to renew it when evaporated. This will generalfy
preserve your insects, as will be seen from the result of
the following experiment.— -Some insects in a chip box
having become much infested by Acati and Psocusptd^
satortus^ I placed under a wine-glass several of eadi
along with roughly-powdered camphor : at the end of
twenty-four hours the Acari were alive ; but at the end
of forty-eight they were all apparently deiad, and did not
revive upon the removal of the camphor. The speci-
mens of Psocus all appeared dead in an hour, and never
revived. If the camphor be put only into one side of a
drawer, and in a lump, though perhaps it may keesp out
Acari t &c., it .will not expel them«.

LETTER LI.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

An Entomologist who aspires to more than the cha-
racter of a mere amateur, will not be content with fill-
ing his cabinet with nameless objects for the sole amuse-
ment of the eye ; but will also be anxious to acquire
some knowledge of what he has collected, and to ascer-
tain by what names, whether indicating their genus or
species, they have been distinguished by scientific writers
who;have described insects either in general or those of
particular districts. Thus only can he himself derive
profit Irom apy discpvjBries he may make, or , contribute
to the further progress of the science*.

But iq order to accomplish this object effectually, you
must re^iember. and practise the Onslow mq^o-^Fesiina
lente : — ^you must not be too eager to name your speciesj
but JbegiQ first wiihgrouj^in^ your collection. The only
yay .tO; acquire, in. apy degree^ a correct knowledge of
the ^JjTatural System, or of the general p\m of ^e Crea-
TOB, which is : the primum and tdiimum of true science,
i9 by studying ^(M^^. The knowledge of species is in-
deed indisfp^sable^fpr^,l)ie rggistry of fects and other
practical purposes, but the knowledge of groups leads

? CQjof«r^ wha^ ii said You I^ j>, 47—.

2 N 2

548 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

to a higher wisdom ; and indeed it is through these that
we best descend to the stady of species.

I will suppose you have made yourself master of so
much of the technical language, partieularly the iiames
and most important attributes of the principal organs of
insects, as will suffice for understanding descriptions, or
knowing these parts when you see them* I will also
further suppose that what was formerly said on these
subjects has been sufficiently studied, to enable you with-
out much difficulty or hesitation to say whether any
given object belongs to the Class Insecta or Arachnidaj
or to which of their respective Orders*. You are there-
fore qualified to arrange your collection into its primary
groups. But you have seen that many others intervene
between the Order and the genus or species. As the
genera of Linn^ are mostly primaiy groups of Orders,
perhaps, setting aside such insects included in them by
him as your eye and their apparent characters convince
you have no claim to fi place there, your next best
step would be to make yourself thoroughly acquainted
with them. When you have accurately marshalled
and intimately studied these groups, you will probably
have acquired yi eye and a tact, experto crede^ for group-
ing without book, and may proceed by analysis to te-^
solve your whole collection, as nearly as possible, into as
many as nature seems to indicate td you. In doing this
you will doubtless at first fall intb many errors ; but theses
practice and a closer examination will in time enable
you to rectify. Having thus got your groups as near
to nature as you can, you may now have recourse to those

• Vol. III. p. 28—. See above, p. 368—.

XNVESTI6ATION OF INSECTS.- 549*

authorSf particularly Fabricius and Latreille, who have
subdivided the genera of Linne ; and yon will see which
of your groups agree with theirs, detect your own errors,
and often theirs, and be enabled to label each of your
genera and higher groups, if already known, with its.
modern appellation. You are now qualified also to
^nter scientifically into the study of the characters that
dlstii^uish groups, and may proceed^ wherever oppor-
tunity is afiforded, to examine the /rop^i, which may
often be displayed sufficiently by the means recommended
in my last letter^. In this way you may learn also to
know your groups as well by character as by habit, and
be qualified to trace the gradual progress of nature from
form to form ; and may look upon yourself as duly pre-
pared to put the last hand to your labours, and proceed
to the examination of specie^.

It will have occurred to you, in making out your genera
or lofwest groups, that some consist of a vastly greater
number of species than others* It seems advisable
therdbre, when you apply yourself seriously to ascertain
what described ones your cabinet contains, to begin with
those genera which appear to be poor m them; for here
your labour will be comparatively light, ^om the small
number you will have to examine; and you will become
practised in the employment before you are called upon
to attack those that overflow. Had Fabricius and
other describers of species taken the trouble to sub-
divide the larger genera, as might easily hav6 been done,
into more sections or subgenera^ the student would have
been spared a most discouraging labour. To be obliged

• See above, p. 533.

5Sd INVESTIGATION OF I'N'SfiCl^.

to compare a single individual with the des(^ptions of
frbm 100 to 300 species*, to akcertfiiin its name^ seexh^
enough to make you start aside with horror froti di^'
employment, and' be content that your spedie^ should'
remain unnamed, rather than ei^pose ydursblf to sadh' 6-
waste of time and patience. But to lesi^ii' your alantt'
and encourajg^ y6li to proceed^ I ilitist dbsferve to yoli,
though in a feW instances it may be necessa^ to »d-
vert to the description of every single species^ in' a see*-
tion, yet that this is seldom requiske; and' wher^ it is,
there are many helps to diminish the labour and abridge
the process. A large number of insects are characte-
rized by their colour: and it is the practice of aH good de-
scribers to begin their definition of the species with that
which predon^inates, and then to enumerate the varia-
tions from it. Thus, if an insect be all black except the
ikoraXf ant&rina^ and legs^ you will find it thus charac-
terized, ** Black : with thojax, anienmel and legs Jerrugi"
fiaus** ; and So on. Hence, having noticed the predomi-
nant colour of your unknown species, in mdny genera
yoti may compare it with the descriptions contained in tL
whole page at a single glaiice, and only re^d the fuither
descriptions w)^n the colour agrees. A practised Enti>-'
mologist will thus investigate his ini^ects with a rapidity
which to an linkarned bystander would seem impossible*
Though I have instanced colour as being the character
most cohiniotily employed in describing species of in-
serts, y6u will readily conceive thdt in some tribes dther
charadterl; Aflbtd more prominent distinctions. Thus in

* In Elater, Fabricius describes 137 species ; in Melohniha, 149 ;
in one section of Jlynchanui, 161 ; of Curculio, 183 ; and in his Fa-
jnli&nes Heliconn, 300.

INVfiSTIGATION OF INSECTS* 551

%he DyrtastiAe and many other Petalocerous beetles, the
principal specific character is derived from the horns or
tubercle^ that arm the head and lliorasp : in Laicantis^ L.
from the mandibuUe; and in Prionuf F« from the mar-
ginal teeth of the thorax. If the ir^ect, then, you want
to name belongs to any of these genera, having obi^erved
its peculiar characters in this respect, yon may ascertain
in a very few minutes whedier any already deiscribed
exhibit the same. Hiis fiicility of investigation can be
better acquired by practice than precept, and cannot be
attained all at once. The above hints, however, may be
of so^e use ; and cannot fail to be so, if you always en-
deavour to make yourself acquainted by a previous care*
ful examination with the characters of every new insect
you acquire, — whether those of form, colour, or sculp*
ture,-^efore you attempt to discover its name in Fabri-
cius or any other author.

When you have made such proficiency in the study
as to be fiuniliar with a few species of each section of an
extensive genus, the labour of investigation will some*
timeis be greatly facilitated by attending to that con*
formity between the proportions, general aspect, and
figure of a known and an unknown insect, which Natu*
ralists express by the name of habit^ and which, though
easily perceived by a practised eye, is described with
such difficulty. Scientific Entomologists in their de*
scriptions have usually taken care to place near to each
other, species agreeing in habit. When therefore you
know the name of one species, and find another of the
same general habit, you may commonly take it for
granted that if described at all by your author, it will be
placed near that already known to you. Thus, suppo*

552 INVESTIGATION OF lUSEOtS^

sing you are acquainted with that common weeril JRAyn^
ekanus Scropkularue F. {Cianus Latr*), and find its near
relation M* Blattarine F. ; instead of camparing it ooe
by one with the 161 species which compose his Lon-.
girostresfemoribus dtntaiis of that genus in the Systenia
Eleutheratonm^ you would at once turn to the former,
very near whidi you would without fiuther. ttouUe dis-
cover it Fortunate would it be^ could the Entcmio-
logist alwajrs depend on thus finding descriptions of
allied species in the neighbourhood of eaich other ; but
unhappily the most distinguished autliors have sometimes
violated this important rule, so that vfQ cannot always be
certain that any given species is not elsewhere described
than in its right place. Fabricius in many instances
often removes widely asunder insects not merely related,
but which are in reaUcy scarcely more than varieties of
the same species^. In fact, the attention of this cdb*
brated author was so distracted by the immensity of the
materials he. had to arrange, by the distance of the ca^
binets, in many cases, from each other, the new spe-
cies, of which he undertook to describe, and the rapidi^
with which they necessarily passed under his eye, that
he seems never to have attained any nice perception of
the ^^&»jV£f5 of ifisects.

You must not conclude, however, that the investiga^
tion of a new insect is even to an adept always a work of
ease and dispatch. Often, when seemingly ascertained
by the rapid process above indicated, a further inquiry
will be requisite ; the more detailed description must be

Thus be places CJiUsma holotericwa and mgricomu^ which might
pass for varieties, far asunder; and Ihomia agilis is even put in a
different section from D. guadrimaaUaia, trwncateUa^ &c.

INVESTIGATiaN OF INS£CT}$. BSS

read, and figures consulted, before its natne can be in-
disputably determined. In addition to the difficulty
arising irc»n the insufficient characters frequently given
by Fabricius and the older authors, obstacles arising
from their errors not seldom int^'vene. Thus they have
sometinies selected for sl specific character, — as in the case
of Megachile centunctdarisy Notnuda mficomUj and Tari-
ous other insects^— what really only indicates 9l family.
At other times sexual characters common to many, — as;
in Eucera hmgicomis^ LocustaperspiciUata F«, &c.,-^have
been had recourse to. In these cases, in order satisfac-
torily to ascertain your species, you must further con-
sult the synonyms and habitat given by the original de-
scriber, especially the figures he has referred to. When
all these fail, as they sometimes will, the derkier resort
is a reference to the cabinet containing the original spe-
cunen from which the description was drawn. British
Entomologists possess an invaluable privilege, which
their continental brethren may well envy them, in having
the most liberal access, indulged to them by the learned
President of the Linnean Society, to Linne's collection
of insects, from which a large proportion of the species
he described may be ascertained. Several of the cabi-
nets, especially the Banksian, — now the property of the
Linnean Society,— from which Fabricius described his
insects, may also still be consulted ; and thus many mis-
takes rectified, which would otherwise greatly midead^.
Though sometimes the limits that separate good spe-

* It may not be amiss to mention a few i-^SpJusriMum dyiiscoideg
is a Hydrophiltu related to H.fuscipeg. S.glabratum is faeteromerous,
probably one of the HelopH Latr. Carabus retustu and MadertB both
belong to Cahioma, Cistela angtutata is a true Choleva, See Linn.
Trans, xi. 138,^5.

5S4i. 1NV£STI6ATI0N OF INSECTS.

cies Appear at first very slight, and require a practised
eye to catch them, yet it occasionally happens that con-
stden^ble apparent di&rences may safely be disregarded.
The colour of insects, — ^to which unhappily for want of
better charncters we are so generally forced to have re-
GOurse,-'-^though usually constant, is in some species very
variable^* This is the case sometimes with whole colours.
Thus Carabus. armnsis^ Pcecilus cupreus^ &c., are some-
times of a. copper colour ; at others, resemble brass ; at
others, thi^ are green, or blue, and even black. The
colour of q^ts also, often varies. In some individuals
of Pentatoma oleracea they are pale, and in others red.
The number and shape of spots are also often incon-
stant. Many of the species of Coccinella so abound in
these variations, that nothing short of the most careful
exi^nination can enable you to distinguish the species
from the variety. Insects vary also in size : but as this
i& never assumed as a specific character, it will not oc-
q^ion you much trouble. Where the di£Perence in this
respect between two specimens is very great, the pre-
siunption is that they are specifically distinct Diffe-
rence!^ in sculpture and proportion do not always indicate
dMSereat species 5 this being sometimes, as we have seen
above^ only a ^eanial character^. Authors also in their
descriptions in this respect sometimes mislead the young
student. When Linne calls the thorax of Aphodius er^
raticus smooth {hi^s\ he would not expect to find it co-
vered with impressed puncta, and with a longitudinal
posterior impressed line. Likewise in describing ChUenia
vestiia and nigricomis, Fabricius passes without notice

" See above, p. 397. * Vot. III. p. 305,

IlirVESTiaATtON OF iHSEtTTS. 555

their punctate surface, so different irom that of other
Harpalida. Errors of this kind however^ it is but fair
to observe, are chifefly to be attributed to the circum^
stance that both Linn^ and Fabricius rarely employed^
a microscope in making descriptions ; tliough na one now
attempts this^ except where insects are large^ without
such an aid;

If you ask, How am I to acquire this delicacy of tact
which is to decide when the terms of ar specific character
are to be rigidly adhered to, and when^ taken with a cer-
tain latitude? I answer, In the same way in which a
connoisseur attains the feculty of discerning the works
of different masters in painling ; — by such careful study
of your author as wilt make you master of his s1yle»
Thus you will soon perceive in what cases expressions
are to be taken literally and strictly, or with some al-
lowance and abatement.

Th^re yet remains more distincdy to be adverted to,
the assistance that may be derived in the investigation of
insects from Jigures. Generally speaking, those should
rievefr be referred to in the first instance, but berqgafded
as a resoui'ce when the ordinary methods leave the sulv
je<*t, of inquiry doiibtfiil. Those who begin their ento-
mological studies by turning over figures usually end
fhem there^ atid iiever attain to that nameless tact in
making out tfisects that can only be the result of patient
i^udy. indeed figures, though often very useful, and
sometimes indispensable, dan scarcely ever exhibit those
nice characters, particularly as to sculpture, that distin-
guish Some insects. Our modem artists, indeed, are re-
medying this defb<^ oS the art, by giving in many cases
the thorax or ^lytrum apart, with all its sculptural pecu-

556 tNVESTIOATION OF INSECTS.

liarities : bat this is not, and cannot be, done so as to re^
present every one* Biit though in general figures should
be your last resort, I know not whether an exception to
the rule may not be advisable with respect to the Lepido-
ptera^ which are more difficult to be intelligibly described
than any other order of insects; while a good figure exhi-
bits to the eye all those markings and shades, that scarcely
any descriptioin can place clearly before llie mind.

When every attempt to investigate the name of your
imknown species &ils, and you have consequently reason
to believe that it is undescribed, the best mode you can
pursue for retaining that knowledge of its characters^
which from your long investigation you must have ac-
quired, is to note them down in your entomological
joumaly inserting it under its proper genus with a tri-
vial name of your own. Such a journal you will find
almost a sine qua non for containing a catalogue of your
insects, and to register any observations concerning indi-
viduals you may have had an opportunity of making.
With regard to this journal, I should recommend to
you to get two blank books. On ea duodecimo of 200 or
300 pages, to contain the mere catalogue of your insects,
their habitat and localities, or the source firom which you
derived them. In this you should number the genera in
Roman capitals, and the species under each by a figure ;
leaving considerable space at the end of each genus for
the inserti<m of new species. The other book should be
of an octavo size, containing 400 or 500 pages. Under
the number of each genus and species you might de-
scribe and figure it, if undescribed ; if described, note in
what it varies fi*om the description, and what characters
are overlooked : and in general insert such observations.

INV£STI6ATION OF INSECTS. 557

with regard to its economy and habits, as you may have.
had an opportunity of making.— As to foreign insects^
whoever you can, upon good authority, be particular
in indicating the country and station of each specimen.
I need not say much to you concerning the micro-
scopes you should use for the examination of insects, a
common pocket one of three glasses of different powers
will answer every ordinary purpose'.

. We have treated hitherto of insects as we find them
now inhabiting our globe : but I must not conclude our
correspondence without taking some notice of those that
are found in bl fossil state. Fossil insects may be divided
into those that are found in amber^ and those that are
found in other substances.

It has been observed with respect to insecdferons am-
ber, that the greater part of the insects found in it exist
no longer in the countries that produce that amber, and
that in every different locality the insects found in it are
different. Thus the amber of Sicily contains various
species of Coleoptera not to be met with in other ambers,
^while thatof the Baltic is rich inDiptera andNeurqpteraK
It is further observed, that the insects inclosed in the
amber of Prussia, and those figured by Sendelius in his
Historia Sticdnorum^ all belong to genera at this time
found in Europe^. Insects of the following genera are
recorded as having been found in this singular substance :
Platypus, Mater 9 Atractocerus ; GryUus, Mantis: larvse

* For dissections the one recommended above, p. 194, may be used.
Sometimes a watchmaker's eye-glass, which also sets the hands at
liberty, will be found useful.

»• N. Diet, d^HitU Nat. xxxii. 264. ' Ibid. xvi. 281.

5&S INVEfiTIGATIOK OF INSECTS.

o( Lepidoptera ; P/nyga$tea L. ; Epbemef-af Petia^ Trmies/
Formicas Tipida, Bibioy Empis; Scotopendra; andvarioos
Arachnida *. In a piece of amber in my collection I find
Evaniay Formica, Chironamus, and some Arachnida.

Fossil insects have also been found in other substances.
Parkinson figures larvae of Libelbdina found in lime-
stone^ ; some Melohnika in slate ; a Polishes in schistus ;
Carabi and Necrcbia in vegetable debris : but some of
these rather belong to a comparatively modern forma-
tion ^

I observed in the outset of our correspondence, that
we were entering an august temple, exhibiting in its
inmost sanctuary the symbols of the Divine Presence*'..
In proportion as we have penetrated, glory from that
Shechinah has more and more shone forth : and whether
we have considered the uses of insects, their ways and
instincts, their forms and structure, and their arranger-
ment in a wondrous and complex system, the Wisdom,
Power and Goodness of their and our Creator have
every where been marvellously conspicuous, and calcu-
lated to awaken in us every devotional feeling. If, indeed,
we admire and stu^y these little creatures, or. any other
department of nature, without reference to their Cr£a«
TOR, and collect and love them merely for themselves^ we
shall be in some sense idolaters, and, like the ancient
world, put the iwrks of God in his place. But if, while
we admire them and store them up and study them, we
see in them his glory reflected, and in the creature love

• JVl Did. d'Hitt. iVoL xvr. «81.

* Organic RenunnM iii. t, xvii. /. 2.

< im. ^1—. d Yof.. I. p. 2©.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 559

the Creator, the study of the^, in conjiinctlon with
that of the written Word, will be highly beneficial to us,
and at the same time that it ministers to our tempord
enjoyment will promote our eternal interests.

Taking this view, I cannot better close our correspon-
dence on the subject that has so long occupied us, than
in the pious words of one of our most admired poets :

M

Happy if full of days — bat happier far^

If, ere we yet discern life's evening star.

Sick of the service of a world that feed^

Its patient drudges with dry chaff and weeds.

We can escape from custom's idiot sway.

To serve the Sovereign we were born t' obey.

Then sweet to muse upon his skill display'd

(Infinite skill) in all that he has made !

To trace, in Nature's most minute design.

The signature and stamp of pow'r divine.

Contrivance intricate, express'd with ease.

Where unassisted sight no beauty sees,

The shapely limb and lubricated joint.

Within the small dimensions of a point,

Muscle and nerve miraculously spun.

His mighty work, who speaks and it is done,

Th' Invisible in things scarce seen reveal'd.

To whom an atom is an ample field :

To wonder at a thousand insect forms.

These hatch'd, and those resuscitated worms.

New life ordain'd and brighter scenes to share.

Once prone on earth, now buoyant upon air.

Whose shape would make them, had they bulk and size.

More hideous foes than fancy can devise;

With helinet-heads and dragon-ecales adorn'd,

The mighty myriads, now securely scom'd.

Would mock the majesty of man's high birth.

Despise his bulwarks, and unpeople earth :

560 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

Then with a glance of fancy to survey.

Far as the £Eu;ulty can stretch away.

Tea thousand rivers pour'd at his command |

From urns that never fail through every land ;

These like a deluge with impetuous force.

Those winding modestly a silent course;

The cloud-surmounting alps, the fruitful vales; {

Seas on which every nation spreads her sails;

The sun, a world whence other worlds drink light;

The crescent moon, the diadem of night ; |

Stars countless, each in his appointed place.

Fast anchored in the deep abyss of space : — |

At such a sight to catch the poet's flame, |

And with a rapture like his own exclaim.

These are thy glorious works, thou source of good !

How dimly seen, how faintly understood !

Thine, and upheld by thy paternal care.

This universal frame, thus wondrous fair ;

Thy powd^ divine, and bounty beyond thought.

Adored and praised in all that thou hast wrought*

Absorbed in that immensity I see,

I shrink abas'd, and yet aspire to thee ;

Instruct me, guide me to that heavenly day.

Thy words, more clearly than thy works, display.

That, while thy truths my grosser thoughts refine,

I may resemble thee, and call thee mine.*"

• Cowper's BetiremetUn ^ .

APPENDIX.

I.

DE GENITALIBUS ET GENERATIONS INSEC"

TOR UM.

Inter tot et tanta Optimi Creatoris miracula, quae
Regnum Animale tantopere illustrant, vix ulla sunt majori
admiratione digna, et Physiologi eruditi introspectione, quam
quae ad generationem insectorum spectant. Quamvis enim
inter sexus organa vertebratorum animalium et insectorum
analogia baud parva locum babet ; numero tan)en> figura et
proportione partium^ miro modo saepius differunt ; et organa
insuper plura in insectis reperiuntur quorum in vertebratis
exempla frustra qusesiveris.

Hoc argumentum tractando duo sunt imprimis conside-
randa, genitalia nempe ipsa utriusque sexus, et coitus.

I. De genitalibus in genere prima observatio erit, << quo
minor horum, babita corporis ratione, moles, eo magis nervo-
rum systema, et cepbalicum imprimis ganglium, predominans
fit; eo major igitur intellectiis facultas (instincto natural! con-
sociata) reperitur/* ut in principibus, Apibus nempe, Formica^
&c.* In Hymenopterisy iterum, Dipterisy et NeuropteriSf haec
organa maxime retracta sunt; dum in Lepidopteris, Coleo*
pteris, et Orthopteris (quorum insuper mascula et femimea

* Rifferschweits De Insect, Genitcd. 9.
VOL. IV. 2 O

56^ APPENDIX.

insigniter inter se congruunt * ) , roagis exserta jacent ^. Geni-
talia pleramque in extremitate postica abdominis sub ano sita
suDtS sed in Arachnidis et Libdlulinis masculis in basi ventris,
in Phalangio sub ore^ et in ChUognathis in anteriore corpora
parte subtus latitant*'. Ubi organa duplicantur, ut testes^ sem*
per symmetrica sunt. Non obliviscendum est quod in diversis
generibus habitu extemo persimili consociatis, imd in diversis
unius generis speciebus genitalia diversa interdum reperiun*
tur®: sic in Lamellicornibus ^^^coranis {ScarabiBuSf Copris^
&c.), testes tantummodo sunt dtto; in arboreis {Melohnthay
&c.) duodecim, et in Jloraiibus ( Cetonioy &c.) mgintt^quatuor.

Genitalia sunt vel mascula vel Jeminea*

i. Genitalia ma«cu^, sunt penis; cancdis excretorius; vesicuUB
'seminaJtes ; vasa de/erentia ; testes; prehensores ; et semen,

1. Penis^ c^o^idi suhstantiam plerumque membranaceus, at
interdum corneus est, et intus cavernosuss^; in Coleopteris
apice vagina bivalvi vulvam aperiente instructus est^ : j^^ni
variat admodum, sepius tamen cylindricus vel subcjlindricus
est; in Blattis apicem versus sensim attenuatus'; in Ckerme
Pyrt capitatus^; in Vespa wdgari cochleariformis^ ; in Cra*
brone bilobus*" ; iii Vespa aliiei quadam incurvus et apice bicor-
nis"; in Musca vivipara apice spinosus"; in MegachUefnu*

* De Orthopterii hoc praecipue notavit D. Marcel, de Serres
{Mem, du Mm, 1819. 113—.) in quibus vesiculae seminales, colle-
terio ; testes, ovariis ; vasa deferentia, oviductui ; canalis seminalis,
ovipositori, &c., mutuo adamussim respondent.

*> Rifferschw. De Insect, Gemtal, 9.

* Reaum. ii. 79. Herold. SchmetterL t, iv./. 2, 3.

«» Treviranus i4ra<?A«irf. 11,36— . Reaum. vL 436. N, Diet. iP Hist,
Nat, XL 82. Marcel, de Serr. ubisttpr, 104. Latreille Fam, Nat, 334.

* Rifferschw. vM supr, ^ Plate XXII. Fig. 1. a,
8 Rifferschw. 10. N. Dict!'d'Hist, Nat, xvi. 242.

1^ Ibid, & xxxv. 412. * Gaede Anat, der Ins, t, i. /. 9. a,

^ De Greer iii. t,bi,f,\\,t, * Reaum. vi. t. xvi. /. 6, 7. g-

"» Ihid, t xviii. /. 4, 5.g. * " Ibid, t. xxvii./. 16. c,

° De Geer vi. t. iii. /. 17. d, e, f.

APPENDIX, 56S

raria difformis*; in Tyrophaga putri et quibusdam alik Mus^
cidis, spiralis^; in Libditda anea et Phal^ngio biarticulatus^.
Utplurimum nudus est, sed in TephrUe fimbriatus. In insec-
tis proprie dictis dmpkx est hoc organon, in Seorpianibus au-
tem dupiex evadit; quod fit etiam iov quibosdam reptilibuB^
Serpentibus nempe et LacerHs\

% Canalis excretorku e concursu vesicularum seminalium
Ibrmatur, et a pene excipitur in quo terroinat et cui semen
reddit; interdum brevissimus est, ut in BlaUa% et interdum
iterura prselongus, ut in Blapte Mortisaga, TyrophaguptUrii et
aiiiB^ Pleramque cylindricus est, musculosus, compactus, et
externe tracheis pertextus'.

3. Vesicuke semihales conniventes formant^ ut jam dictum
est, canalem excretorium communem cujus prolongatio bifida
esse videntur ; vasa deferentia hinc excipiunt. Interdum vasa
hsec ac vesiculae seninales eodem loco in canali excretorio
communi terminant, unde canalis hie tumidior fit^. Vesiculss
sopradictae maxime variant : roodo canalem exhibent ventri-
cosum, tortum^ implexum, longtssiraum ; modo rettum, bre^
viorem. In plerisque dua sunt vesiculae seminales, etiam in
LepidopterU monocchidis; in quibusdam {Tenebrione MM*
torey Hydrophilo piceo) quiUiwr^i in aliis {Dytisco margintdi)
sex^; et, in Locustis et BlaUa, plurimiBK Breres admodum
sunt in Ortkopteris et quibusdam Cokapteris'° ; sed in aliis
longissimae; in Qrycte nasicomi vicies, et in Cetonia aurata

a Reaum. vi. /. viii./. 5. rf, e, m.
* Swamm. BibL Nat, t xliii. /. 17. «, *, c.
"^ De Geer ii. t. xix. /. 1 1./. iST. Diet. d'Hist. Nat, xi. 8«.
^ Ibid. XXX. 41 ; xxix. 177. * Gaede Anat. t. i. /. 9.

' Ibid. 18. Swamm. tM supr, t. xliiL /. 17. ^, d.
« Riffewchw. 10. ^ Ibid. 22.

i Gaede /. ii. / 9. rf, e. N. Diet. d'lTtst, Nat. xvi. 241.
^ Swamm. tUn supr. i. 223. t xxii. /. 5. h, i. Hoc insecto et Ify-
drophilg supradicto organa insunt quae pro Proitatu habentur.
» N. Diet. d'Hitt. Nat. xvi. 242. Gaede /. i. /. 9. dd.
" Rid. etiam t. ii. /. 9. 14. dd.

2o 2

564< APPENDIX.

ter decres corpus longitudine supei'ant*; ia hisce orgiinis
semen e testibus per vasa deferentia acceptum ante emissio-
nem elaboratur.

4. Vasa deferentia ita appellantur quia semen e testibus ac-
ceptum ad vesiculas seminales deferutU, Ex utroque teste
unum vas deferens exit, et si utrinque plures sint testes, ut in
Mdolontha^^ Cetonia, &c., omnia ad unicum utrinque canalem
formandum confiaunt, qui vesiculis supradictis semen reddit:
interdum, ut in Lepidopteris^y ab his nullo modo separantur,
unum canalem aut tubum formantia ; sed in aliis penitus sunt
distincta"^. Ex eodem filo quo contexuntur testes vasa defe-
rentia saepius deducuntur.

5. Testes organa sunt semen primum secementia : variant
coinposiHoney numeroy etjigura. In quibusdam {Lepidopteris et
Hymenopteris) sunt compacti vasculis visui se subducentibus;
in aliis ( Orthoptens, Neuropterisy Dipterisy et quibusdam Coleo-
pteris) e vasculis brevibus cdecis variique voluminis conformati
sunt, atque tunica densa tenaci vel rete tantum mucoso ob-
ducti^ ; yel iterum ex unico variisque modis tecto canali varie
contorto et implexo, qui deduci potest et baud raro massam
ovalem trachearum ope contextam refert, conflantur, ut in
Coleopteris Prcedaceis twai aquaticis quam terrestribus^

Numero etiam variant testes. Qusedam LepidopterOy ut
Pieris Brassicaey item lulid^B^y unico gaudent ; pleraque tamen
insecta animalia vertebrata hie aemulantur, et testibus instru-
untur duobus; in Nepa cinerea et reliquis Hemipteris qua-
tuor vel quinqueS in Melolontha vtdgari sex^ et in Cetonia
aurata duodecimS utrinque deteguntur. Interdum ex acinis

■ Cuv. Anat, Comp, v. 192. *• Gaede U ii /. 2. e.

^ Herold. Schmett, t. xxxii. <> Gaede U ii. /. 9.

• Rifferschw. 19. ' Ibid. 20.

* Marcel, de Serres Mem, duMus, 1819. 115.

^ Ibid. ISSr Comp. Cut. Anat. Comp. v. 195. cum Swamm. Bibi.
iVirt. i. 102. • ^

i Cuv. Ibid. 19L ^ Ibid.

APPENDIX* 565

|>luribu8 compact! videntur, et bacciformes appellari possunt.
In Lamia duodecim glaodulae in utroque. teste coalitas inve-
niuntur% et in Tenehrione Molitore plurimae''.

QixiotA Jiguramf interdumi ut in Pieride Papilionum ge-
nere, spherid evadunt^; in Acheia pyriformes'; in Ape do*
mestica oblongi®; lineares et longissimi in Carabo coriaceoy in
quo decies longitudine corpus superant'; in Nepa dnerea sub*
ovatiy et singuli filamento longo varie convoluto et contorto
terminati^^.

In larvis etiam haec organa detegere est. Sic in eruca Pi-
eridis quatuor testes sunt utrinque, vel potius unicus ex qua-
tuor serie ordinatis, conflatus^. Hi sensim coacervantur do-
nee in sphsdricum testem antea descnptum coalescant.

6. Prehensores^ sunt organa figura varia quibuscum mas in
coitu feminae anum corripit et comprimit. Quoddam analo-
gum in quibusdam Mammaliis, AvUmSy Piscibus, et ReptUibus^
invenitur, sed in insectis maxime conspicui. Eoruro sUus,
numerusy etjbrmay sunt notandi.

Quoad situm — circa foramen per quern prodit penis sub ano
plerumque sunt inserd, sed in Conope comu prehensori'um' in
segmento ventrali antepenultimo deprehenditur *; et in Libel-
lulinisy prseter prehensores andksy par est aliud anum spectans,
in secundo ventris segmento pone penis ipSius situm"*. Pre-
hensorum numenis minime constans: plerumque duo sunt, sed
in Tettigoniis F. unicus furcatus tantummodo videre est** ; in
Lepidopteris variis, Conope, LibeUuUdis, ires anumarmant, di£
formes tamen<>; duopana Ctt/ic&m signant^ Megachilem mu^

^ Rifferschw. 22. *» Gaede t. ii. /. 9. bb.

« Herold. Schmett t iv. /. 8, 9. * Gaede t ii. /. 14. bb.

» S wamm. ubi supr. t. xxi. f.l.a. ^ Rifferschw. 21 .

B Swamm*. L iii. /. 6. /. ** Herold. ubi supr. t. v./. 1, 9. &c.

' Plate XXII. Fig. \.b, ^ Cuv. ubi supr. v. 115.

* De Geer vi. /. xv. /. 8. d. " Ibid. ii. ^xix. /. 11. e.

■ Reanm. v. t, xix. /. 9.

*/*tt/.ii.^xxvi./. 10,11./^. De Geer ii. /. xix. / 9,

** Reaum. iv. t. xl. /. 8. c, e.

566 APPENDIX*

rariam\ et Agrionidas^ ; in Locustis veris intra abdomen re-
tracta sunt haec organa; in pupa tamen L, morbiUosiVy in nos-
tro musaeo asservata, quinque apparent ; sex in Fortnids De
Geerius detexit, sed in cognato genera Myrmicaj duo tantum ^;
quatuor paribus postremo Tipula oleracea instructa est. Pre-
hensorum yorma multifarie variati imd haud raro in specie
eadem : interdum emta prehensioni soli hujusmodi instrumenta
sunt adaptata> aliis diversse figurae compresskmem efficientibus ;
interdum et utroque munere funguntur. In Pieride Bras^
sica^ in qua par unicutnj concavo-conTexi sunt, deltoidei, intus
setis rigidis fimbriatii et aptce dente incunro armati''; in
Acrida varia tenueSy siniplices, recurri ; in Arctia iubridpeda,
quae trilms gaudet, laterales sunt concavo-convexi^ ovati, dum
intermedins brevier est, triangularis et unguiculo armatus";
in Libdlula eenea^ et affinibus, duo superiores sunt lineares et
undulatiy etf n/mor uni^u^ prof undebifidus'; in Vanessa I7r-
iic€e exteriores duo sunt conchiformes, par autem interius un-
guiforme^^; in Ctdke superiores longiores conici hirsuti, infe-
riores breviores et ut in prsecedente unguem referunt^; in
Tipula deracea^ in qua octuplici prehensore anus armatus, ral-
Tulse omnes figura diversse— -par exterius nempe concaYum
membranaceum reliquos includens, secundum ungutculatum,
tertium subclavatum, et ultimum fere lunatum' ; in MegachUe
murariay inter alios diversos, unum par literae T formam ha-
bet ^ ; in Bombo forceps analis bivalvis est intus ramosus ' ; et
in Panorpa cheliformis™.
7. De^^mtneipsoinsectorum paucula sunt notanda. Fluidum

» Reaum. vi. t. viii./. 4. c, b. ** De Geer ii. t xxi./. 20, b,c.

* Ibid. <. xliL /. 1 1. b, Cy d; t. xliii. /. 13. p,

* Herold. Schmett. t. iv./. 3. xx. * Reaum. ii, /.lii./. 2. c, L
' De Geer ii. /. xix./. 9. *, c ; /. 10. c. « Reaum. ii. t. iii./. 3. c, /.

* Ibid, iv. t. xl. /. 8. c. e. » Ibid. v. L iii. /. 7, 8.

k Ibid, vi, /. viii. /. 4. b, c. « Plate XXII. Fig. 1. b.

« Plate XV. Fig. 13. L".

APPENDIX. 567

est spissum, lacteum, granulis repletum ; sub lente punctula
numerosa^ nigra, obloDga, incurva, in illo deteguntur. Quoad
emalysin ejus, neque alkalinum neque acidum est^ sed quod-
dam neutrum inter hos intermedium. £x sanie vel sanguine
deoxydato, et durante coitu copiosissime, secernitur : in aqua
tepida solvitur, et conquassatum fundum petit : spiritu vini
rectificato superfuso flocculi quidam formantur ^.

ii. Genitalia feminea vulva excepta antea tractavi ^, haec est
tubus subcylindricus, foramine ovali vel lunato ab ano di-
stincto, cum matrice connexus, et per quem semen in coitu
transmittitur. In ScorpionUms duplicem esse vulvam affirmatur
duobus ovariis connexum ^,

II. Coitus, — Coitum insectorum tractaturo paucula de leno-
ciniis amatoriis, et aliis ejusmodi, quae antecedunt, sunt pr£e-
dicenda. Olfactu mares Phalcenarum interdum feminam la-
tentem, uti canis leporem, odorantur**; splendore phosphorico
Lampyrides et quorundam aliorum insectorum feminae marl-
tum ad lectum gramineum praelucent ; et hue referri forsan
debet plurium caecus ardor lumina circumvolandi, ve] etiam
in lumen irruendi; sontis excitat feminas Tettigoniarum et
GryUidarum^y &c. ad amores, et cantu stridulo querelisque
amatoriis diem ducit mas cupidus, donee sponsa advolat> et
tori foliosi fit baud invita particeps. Sonitu etiam uterque
sex us formidati Anobii mutuo sese provocant ad venerem ^

In plurimis tamen insectis femina fit modestiae et pudicitiae
exemplar, et non nisi difiicillime et capite averse maris ardori
se tradit. In insectorum moribus et oeconomia virtutum plu-
rimarum typum quendam et delineationem nobis proposuit
Deus O. M., quem imitari nos voluit, interdum jussit^. Sic

» Rifferschw. 12. ^ Vide tupra^ Lettee XLII.

^ JV. Dkt, (PHist, Nat, xxx. 16. 425. Marcel, de Serres Mem, du
Mus. 1819. 89.
^ Rai. Hist, Ins, \^^, Jurine Hymenopt, 9. not.
• WoL, II. p. 394—. f N. Diet. d^HUt, Nat. xxxvi. 255.

■ Prov, vi. 6; xxx. 25,

56S APPENDIX.

excitare nos ad laborem indefessum, ad prudentiam item et
amorem erga prolem Formicce dedit ^ : Api ad devotam sui
consecrationero, et omnium facultatum et virium ad reipublicse
emolument urn, ad obsequium quoque verum erga parentes et
regem**: atque ita, ut jam dictum efet, in re amatoria insec*
torum feminae ssepe speciem prse ^e ferunt pudoris et casti-
tatis, et virginibus verecundiam, virtutiim omnium custbdem,
et sexus sui ornamentum maxime proprium, moribiis suis
prsedicant. Hujus modestiae exemplar insigne praebent Xt-
heUtdince, GBstro amoris concitus, mas feminae collum pre-
hensore anali triphyllo arripit et avolat, illam quasi praedam
secum gerens ; sponsse sic elects, persuadere in animo est ut
caudam suam infiecteret, et ad coitum se daret, quod^ illain-
vita, fieri nequit ; maris enira genitalia, ut antea dictum est, in
basi ventris sita, ferainse vero in extremo ano ; bine, nolente
ilia, vix fit coitus, et ssepissime longo et vano labore, hue illuc
volando virginem protervam frustra solicitat ; sed tandem la-
cessitus aquas petit, quas sponsse cauda longa, me teste, sae-
pius fiagellat, donee defatigata, et quasi ex frigido calorem
concipiens, demum et sensim caudam infiectit, et se reddit
amori^. Araneam ferocem, saevam etiam in amoribus, mas
caute appropinquat, et, si blanditiis ejus minus propitiam
sese ostendat, cito resilit, ne osculorum' loco ixiorte donetur :
coitu etiam peracto, pede veloci ab uxore se subducit, quae
ilium, imo post Veneris aurea dona, alias forsan voraret ^, In
genere mares feminas antennarum et abdominis motibus efe
frictione lenociiiantur et ad coitum provocant. '

Insecta sunt alia, ut Pkalenc^, Muscida quaedam^ et Apis
domesticay in quibus inversa est hsec naturae ]ex casta; harum
enim feminae marempetunt, vel blanditiis alliciunt ad amores.

Nunc de coiiu ipso tractabimus, in quo haec sunt prascipue
notanda — modusy stalio relativa, hcusy et duratio,

» Vol. I. p. 363—. " Vol. II. Lettbr XIX.

^ Reaum. vi. 43^—, * De Geer yii. l?^— *

APPENDIX. '569

i. Pleruque iasectis penis ifUrans est, sed in MusddU

quibufidam invensa est lex, et femiose tubus retractilis analis,

foramen sub ano maris penetrat et ita coeuntS Aranddis

singulari et xnirabili prorsus modo fit coitus; organi enim

masculi foDctio partim palpis et partim membro veotrali dele-

^atur: prioribus includitur glans quae pudendum femioeum

penetraty et stc in utroquesexu, palpis. ambobus alternis vid-

bus hujc officio inservientibus, orgasmus veaereus produci-

tur, cui insequitur foecundatio, ab organo wrttr^iU masculo ;

femina tubercula -duo supra genitalia sita in rimas totidem

inter branchias maris immittenteiy et intemporis momentp

omnia peracta sunt **. lasterus, De Geerius, et alii in

zootonua periti» in palpis latere 4>rganum masculum credide-

ruat> sed ex observationibus et dissectioaibua Trevirani patet,

testes et vesiculas seminales in abdomine locum habere*^.; sed

•exitqs horum solummodo in orificio ^\ in palpis e contra <est

organum exsertile peneni referens, quod in coitu erigitur et

'&re glandiforme est : hinc deduci potest, ut videtur, quod

utrumque organum pro genitale habendum, etfoecundationero

feminie ab utroque pendere.

iL Statio relativa. In pderisque iDsecti3, durante coitu,
maris statio superior est, etjemituse^ inferior^ in biyus 4orsum
conscendente Ulo ; interdum taraen hsec Jex inversa est, et'ma-
rem femina ascendit, quod ipse vidi in Ve^ mdgari^et.Sca'
iaphaga^ in Pu^e etiam femina superior,-, sed more hii^manp
OS ori^ ; quod fit etiam in aliis quibusdam masculo praedomi-
nanti, nempe in Cri/ptophago quodam minuto, nostris sub ocu-
lis, in Zygisnay Culice^ et Phalangio ^ In insectis Orthopteris
et pluribus Hemipteris sexus in coitu sibi invicem a latere pa-

* Reaum. iv. 385. ^ De Gear vii. £49. Treviran. Arachnid, 41.

* Marcd. de Serres penem in palpis cum teste pyriformi in tho-
race connexum esse affinnat, Mem, du Mus, 1819% 95.

* Treviran. Ilnd. 37. t.w.f. 33. * De Gecr vii. 10.

' Reaum. ii. 72,^. ii./. 2, De Geer vi. 314; vii. 1^5. Bai, HuL
Ins. 40.

VOL. IV.

57b APPENDIX.

nJleli stant*; sed in aliis Hemipterisf saltern m PetdatamiUep
more canum capitibus aversis, quod fit etiam in quibuisdana
TipididiSf res yenereas peragunt^

ill. Locus, Interdum in terrain et inter gramina ; interdum
inter arbarum etJrtUicum ramos, et sub foliis; interdum iterum
super aquas; et in ipso acre demum baud raro amoris gau-
diis ultimis fhiuntur ; htc Ephemera caducse ' in ipso venere
choreas ducunt, sursum et deorsum, memetipso teste, alter-
natim volitantes*: htc etiam Apwm regina et mater In sub-
lime fertur maritum infelicem petens^ qui voluptatem brevem
^ta emat ' : Phalcenarum feminae apterse hue illuc per aerem
inter arbores trahuntur a mare alato ^ ; et quarundem Tipu-
larum mares a feminis tracti, per aerem item durante coitu
rapiuntur. Modesto satis coeunt insecta, utplurimum plan-
tarum sub umbra latitantes; et plura insuper, ut quaedam
Tipulijey Ttneidce^ et Bomhycidcey sub cortina alarum abdomen
omnino tegente, veneri se tradunt ^

iv. Duratio. Coitus horum animalium duratio varia, inter-
dum, ut in Araneidis, spatio perbrevi conficitur, in quibusdam
tamen plus uno die opus est. Plures feminas interdum aggredi-
tur idem mas, hoc in Bombyce^ Chrysomda Polygoni^ et Musca
domesHca obtinet. Aphidem masculum cum quinque feminis
successive copulantem De Geerius videbat^.

N.B. Inter pupas Orthopterorum et Hemipterorum (xntus
iaierdum locum habet, quod maturiorem organizaHoftem in his
amdogis, quam in aUis insectis probaU

II.

When the account of the Spermatheca ^ of insects was writ-
ten, I had not met with Dr. Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology,

» De Gear H. U; ui. 132. ^ IHd. iil 242. t. xiii./ 16.

* IbkL iii. 642. ^ Huber Kouv. Observ. i. 37—.

• De Geer ii. 276. ^ Reaum. ii. 65—.

« De Geer iii. 62. »» See above, p. 146.

APPENDIX. $71

The following passs^ from that WrQed work proves that or*
gan to be really a sperm-reseryoir.

*^ Impregnation in insects appears to take place while the
eggd^ pass a reservoir containing the sperm, situated near the
termination of the oviduct in the vulva. < In dissecting/ says
John Hunter, to whom we owe the discovery, < the female
parts in the silk.moth, I discovered a bag lying on what may
be called the vagina, or common oviduct, whose mouth or
opening was externali but it had a canal of communication
between it and the common oviduct. In dissecting these
parts before copulation,.! found this bag empty; and when I
dissected them after, I found it full*.' By the most decisive
experiments, such as covering the ova of the unimpregnated
moth, after exclusion, with the liquor taken from this bag in
those which had sexual intercourse, and rendering them fer-
tile, he demonstrated that this bag was a reservoir for the
spermatic fluid, to impregnate the eggs as they were ready for
exclusion, and that coition and imprecation were not simul-
taneous V

IIL

Since I wrote the account of the disease in flies, which I
denominated a kindof /)^Aora% I observed one fixed to a
pane of glass in a window, round which was a semicircle of
what appeared to be merely vapour, whose radius was nearly
three-fourths of an inch. Taking it for an aqueous fluid that
had transpired from the dead animal, I paid no further atten-
tion to it at that time. ^ But observing from day to day that
the moisture did not evaporate, after two or three months had
passed I had the curiosity to examine it more closely; and

• PhU. Trans. 1792. 186. »» Philosophy of Zoology, i. 418.

*" See above, p. 202—.

572 APPENDIX.

upon scraping some of it off with a penknife, I found it was a
white substance of a fatty nature. In this case, then, the fat
must have been exploded on all sides with considerable vio-
lence through the pores of the body. Probably this was a
more intense degree of the plethoric disease. When I exa-
mined this appearance the fly had fallen off, and I could not
find it.

In looking over some letters long since received from
J. Hobarl Briggs, Esq., (a most diligent and accurate observer
and delineator of natural objects,) after my account of the
diseases of iasects was printed ; in one 1 found the details of
a singular instance of Acariasis which had escaped my recol-
lection, but which ought not to be lost. — In July 1817 he
found a small spider, not bigger than those called Spinners, in
his garden, which appears to belong to Walckenaer's third
family of Theridion, to the thorax of which were attached
four oblong bright scarlet Acari^ each of which was as large
as the thorax itself. He afterwards met with another spider
still smaller, attacked by two of these swoln parasites, one of
which appeared to him nearly to equal the whole spider in size.
The Acanis was probably either the Leptus Phalangii^ or
the Astoma parasvt%cum\

IV.

The observations on the chemical composition of insects^
were printed before the publication of the^r^^ number of the
Zoological Journal, in which is an able memoir, to which we
must refer our readers for further information on that sub-
ject.

* De Qeer vii. 117. <. vii. /. 5. Latr. Gen, Crust, et Im. i. 161.
^ De.Geer IM. 118. t. vii. /. 7, 8. Latr. Ibid. 162.
" Vol. ill. p. 395-.

AUTHORS QUOTED.

[N. B. 7%ose works in the following list to which an Asterisk is prefixed ar€
useful to the Entomologist. The abbreviations of the titles of the works
used in the text and notes of the Introduction to Entomology, in the list
are put in Italics.'\

Acerbi (Joseph) Travels through Sweden, Finland, and Lapland, to the
North Cape, in 1798 and 1799. London 1802. 4to.

Adams (Joseph, M.D.) Observtidons on morbid poisons, London 1807. 4to.

ASlianus. De Natura Animalium.

^Are7» (Augustus) i^auna insectorum ^Mropae. Halae 1812— . 12mo.

Aldrovandus (Ulysses) De animalibus insectis. Bononiae 1602. fol.y^

Amoreux (P. J.?) Notice des insectes de la France reputes venimeux

A Paris 1789. 12mo,

Anderson (James, LL.D.) Recreations in Agriculture^ natural history, the
arts, and miscellaneous literature. 6 vols. London 1799 — ^ 8vo.

Andrews (James Pettit) Anecdotes ancient and modern» with observations,
and supplement. London 1789^-^ 8vo.

Angelinus (Fulvius), &c. De verme admirando per nares egresso.

Ravennae 1610.

Anonymous* * The Butterfli/ collector's Fade Mecum, or a synoptical table
of English butterflies. Ipswich 1824. ]2mo.

— »— — A description of the island of St, Helena, containing observa-
tions on its singular structure and formation, and an account of its cli-
mate, natural history, and inhabitants. London 1808. 8vo.

Aristotkles. Tom. iy. Lutet. Paris. 1629. fol. V^

A%ara (Felix de) Voyage dans TAmerique Meridionale. Paris 1809. 8yo.

Bacon (Lord Verulam) Wiyrks of, by Mallet. 4 vols. London 1740. fol.

Baker (Henry) Of Microscopes and the discoveries made thereby. 2 vols.

London 1785. 8vo.

y Bancroft (Edward, M.D.) Experimental researches concerning the phi-
losophy of /jerma/ieTi* co/owr*, &c. London 1794. 8vo.

574 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Aii»b(TlMlU^tHon.airJiMetih, K.a P.B.S.,&c) Aibmtu

of the cause of the ducMc in com oiled bjr tb> fiumen the MjgAI,
llw mildew, and tbe ruM. Loadoa 1805. -tto.

Barebuf ( Jtdm, H. D.) Ad inquiry into the (qnnions, andent and modem,
eonceming li^ and organaatian.' Edinburgh 1 B22. Sto.

Bamu (John) Account vStraeeU into the interior of Soutbern AMctt in
the ytan 1197, 1798, 4c, London IBOl. 4t».

BoTtram (William) Tmveb through N. and 8. Carolina, Georgia, £. and
W. Florida, &e. Phiiaddphia 1791. Sro.

Brahnonn (Johann.) Phyaikaliuh-iikonomiiche NMiolAal, &c.

BtB (Charlei, M.D.) EaMyt on the anatomj of eipression in painliD^

lADdon 1B06. 4W.

Bdan (Pierre) Las obsenalioiis de pluiieurs Eingularil^s et choses me-

monblea trouT^ea en Grjce, &C. Paris 1554. Hato.'-l

Berk (Van F. H.) Verfaandeling ten bewijie, &c Haarlem IBOT. Sio.

BrrUoiuni Naturgeschicble der EuropalKhen schmetterlinge.

Frankfurt 1784. 8»o.
Benuavd (TiaOMM de) Voyage to the isle of Blba. E. Tr.

Iiondon 1BI4. Sto.
Bemik (Tbomas) Tbe hiUoryof British Birdt. London 1797. 8to.

-BiSng (Guttmui Johannes) * Monograpbia MyUbridum.

Holmia IB13. 8vo.

Mlar^ert. Relation du Viyagc ic la rtchercie 4e ta Fenmte pmdant les

annto 1791— 17M. 3 torn. A Paris, An. viiL ^Ut,

Bia^tg (William) AmiHil Biognpby, or anecdotes of the manocra and

economy of the ammal creation, arranged according to tbe system of

Linnstns. 3 Toli. London 1803. Sto.

fioclbK(Samiiel) ifimnafain, aiebipoititumopusdeanimalibiu S. Scrip. >

turre, Francofurt: ad Mfsn. 1675. foL \/

JSmwr (Jamei) P\m fin' speedily Increasing the number of AaduTei in

Scotland. London 1795. Sto.

BoxniT (Charles) 'iEuima d'hisloire naturelle ct de pbilosophie. 18 toIb.

i Neuchatel 177 J-^ 8to.

Bonomo (Gionn. Comm.) Ossenozioni intomo a pellicelli del coipo

imiano. Firenie 1687. 8to. \/

Bradky (Richard P. Bot. Cant.) A Philosopiaeai account a/' the tinnb e^
noftire, &c. London 1731. 4ta

Brahn (NikoL Jos.) Jfudten to/ender fiir saimnler und akonAnen,

Maim 1790. SrOh

Itras (Jacques) La Finn dti inieclopli^i prec6d£ d'nn discoun stir la

utility dea iusectes et de I'ftude d'insectologie. Auliecht 1791.

ouf^on ("niomasJiua) Zetleri wrillen ina liahrattacaTiiplD 1809^^-

Bcriptiie of the manners, &c of the Mahrattas. Loudon 1813, 4to.

Diviu (Patrick) Hiecivil and natural bistoiy of Jamoiaa.

I«ndon 1756. foL

AUTHORS gUOTED. 575

Bmee (James) Travds to discover the source of the Nile in the yean 1 768—

177S. 5 vols. Edinburgh 1790. 4to.

Brunnick (Martin Thrane) Entomologiaf sistens insectorum tabulas sy*

stematicas — Latine et Danice. Hafniae 1764. 8?o.

Butler (Charles) Theybninine monafi;kie or the history of bees.

Oxford 1634. 4to. V'
Campbdi (John) Travels in S. Africa, undertaken at the request of the

Missionary Society. 2nd ed. London 1815. 8yo.

Catesby (Mark) The natural history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama

islands. 2 vols. London 1731—. fol.

Ckarloon (Gualtenis) Onomasticon Zooicon. London 1668. 4to. ^

Christ (J. L.) Naturgeschichte, klassification und nomenclatur der insekten,

Yom bienen, wespen, und ameisengeschelecht, &c. (JBfymenopt,)

Fnmcfurtam Main 1791. 4to.
ClmrvSle, * Jfrtfomologie ffdveAqae, ou catalogue des insectes de la Suisse,

rangees d'apres une nouvelle methode. torn. 2. Zuric 1798— b 8tou
Clark (Bracy) * An essay on the bots of horses and other animals.

London 1815. 4to.
Clarke (Edward Daniel, LL.D.) Travels in Tarious countries of Europe^

Asia and Africa. 8 vols. London 1816 — . 8yOk

Consett (Matthew) Tour through Sweden, Swedish Laphind, Finland, and

Denmark, &c. London 1789. 4to.

Cook (James, Capt.) Account of the voyages undertaken by order of hit

present Majesty for making discoveries in the S. Hemisphere by

John Jffawkesworthy LL.D. &c. 3 vols. London 177S. 4to

Coquebert (Anton. Johann. ) * lUustraldo iconographica insectorum que in

musieis Paristnis dbservavit et in lucem edidit Joh. Christ. Fabridus,

&c Decas. 1—3. Parisiis 1779-s 4ta.

Cramer (Peter) * PajnUons emtiques des trois parties du monde, L'Asie^

L'Afrique et L'Amerique. Utrecht 1779 — , 4to.

Cuba? (M.D.) Ortus sanitatis. De herfois et plantis, de animalibus et

reptilibus, de avibus et volatilibus, de piscibus et natatilibus, delapi-

dibus, &c. 1485. foL

Curtis (John) *BrUi^ Entomology^ being illustrations and descriptions of

the genera of insects found in Great Britain and Ireland, &c.

London 1824. 8vo.
Curtis (William) A short history of the brown-tailed moth, &c.

London 1782. 4to.
CoviEK (G. L. C. F. D. Baron) * L^ons d'^no/omie compart. 5 vob.

Paris 1805. 8vo.
' Le Bigne Animal distribu^ d'apr^ son organisation, &c. torn. 4t

Paris 1817. 8vo.
Darain (Erasmus, M.D.)
"—— - Zoonmnkiy or the laws of organic life. London 1794. 4to.

Phytologia, or the philosophy of agriculture aild gardening.

London 1800. 4to.

576 AUTHORS gUOTED.

Ikny (Sir Humphry, Bart, P. R.S.) EXementtofagneuitural Chemistry, in

a coiiTBe of lectures for the Board of A griculture. London 1813. 4to.

Dk Gssa (Baron Charles) * M6moires pour servir k Thistoire des insectes.

torn. 7. A Stockholm 1752 — • 4to.

De Jean (M. le Baron) * Catalogue de la collection des Coleopt^res de

M. le B. de J. A Paris 1821. 8vo.

Derham (William, D.D.) PAylico-fA^ogy, or a demonstration of the being

and attributes of God from bis works of creation. 13th ed.

London 1768. 8to.

Detharding (George Christoph.) Disputatio de insectis coleojttens Danuns,

Buetzovii 1763. 4to.

DonovaH (Edward) * The natural history cf British insects, explaining them

in their several states, illustrated with coloured figures.

London 1792-^ 8vo

■ Epitome of the natural history of the insects of China.

London 1798. 4to.

.. of India. 1800. 4to.

, of N. Holland, 1 802. 4to.

Douce (Francis) lUustratums of Shakespeare and of ancient manners. 2 vols.

London 1807. 8vo.

Drury (Dm) * Illustrations of natural history, wherein are exhibited

figures of exotic insects.. 3 vols. London 1770^^. 4to.

J)wfour (Leon) Description de six Arachnides nouvelles et d*une nouvelle

esp^ce de Galeode. Extrait de la 4* torn, des Anna!. G6n^r. des

Scienc. Fliys. A BruxcUes 18£0. 8vo.

Jh^Uchmidt (Gaspard) Fauna Austriaca. 2 tom.

Lintz et Leipzig 1805 — . 8vo.

Dumeril (A. M. Constant) Trait^ ilSmentzli^ d*histoire naturelle. tom. 2.

2ndeed. A Paris 1807. 8vo.

JEX&s (Daniel) An inquiry into the changes induced in atmospheric air by

the germination of seeds, tlie vegetation of plants, and the respiration

of animals. Edinburgh 1807. 8vo.

Esper (Eugen. J. Christoph.) *Die schmetterUngen in abbildungen nach

der natur mit beschreibungen. Erlangen 1777—^ 4to.

Escholtz, Beitrage sur naturkund.

Fabricius ( Johann. Christian.) *PAi^ophia entomologica, sistens scienti«

fundamenta adjectis definitionibus, &c.

Hamburg! et Kilonii 1778. 8vo.

— . * SysteiDA Entomolog^m -sistens, insectorum classes, ordines,

genera, species, adjectis synonjnnis, locis, descriptionibus, observa-

tionibus. Flensburgi et Lipsiae 1775. 8vo.

* J^nlomologia systematica emendata et aucta, secundum classes,

&C. tom. 4. HafniiB 1794 — » 8vo.

*i9u|)pfementumEntomologiaesystematicss. Hafnie 1798. 8vo,

-«— * S^ftteauk Eleuthentoruia secundum ordines, &c. torn. 2.

KiliB. 8vo.

AUTHORS gUOTEB. 577

Fabriciits (JohaoD. Christian.) *Sysiemsi Rhyngoiorum secundum or-
dines, &c. Brunsvigas 1803. 8vo.

*S!t/stemA Piexatorum. secundum ordines, &c.

Brunsyigse 1804. -8vo.

* SkfstemA An^tarum secundum ordines, &c

Brunsyigae 1805. 8ro.
■ ■ Besultate natur historischer tforleakngen. Kiel. 1804. 8to.

FcUmdus (Otho) i^auna Groenlandicti, systematlce sistens animalia Groen-
landiae occidentalis hactenus indagata, &c.

Hafnise et Lipsia9 1780. 8vo.
JFischer (Gotthelf) * ErUomographia Imperii ffiosici, &c. yol. 1.

Mosquae 1820—. 4to.
Fischers, Beschreibung dns buhna mit menschenahnlichen profile.

St. Petersburg 1816. 8vo.
Fleming (John, D. D.) * The PkUosopky of Zoohgi/f or a general yiew of
the structure, functions, and classification of animals. 2 yols.

Edinburgh 1822. 8yo.

ForUana (Felice) On Poisons. (£. TV.) London 178^. 12mo.

Forbes (James) Oriental Memoirs, from a series of familiar Letters written

during 17 years residence in India. 4 vols. London 1813^*. 4to.'

Forster (John Reinhold) Novas species insectorum centuxia I.

London 1771. 8vo.
Forsyth (William) Observations on the diseases^ defects, and injuries inall^
kinds of fiuit and forest trees, with an account of a particular method
of cure. London 1791. 8vo.

FrankKn (William) Military memoirs of General Thomas, who rose . from
an obscure situation to the rank of a general in the service of die na-
tive princes in the N. W. of India, &c. Calcutta 1803. 4to.
Fuessli (Jean Gaspar) Archives de Thistoire des insectes traduiteS en Fran-
9ois. Winterthour 1794. 4to.
Gaede (Heinrich Morits) Beytrage zur aTio^omie der m<ekten, &c.

Altona 1815. 4to.
Geoffroy *Hist6ire ahregee des insectes dans laquelle ces animaux sont
rangees suivant un ordre metliodique. tom. 2, {Ins, Par.)

A Paris 1764. 4to,

Germar (E. F.) * Insectorum spede& novte aut minims cognitas description!.

bus illustratae. Vol. 1. Coleoptera. Halae 1824. 8vo.

Gleditsch (Johan. Gottlieb.) PAyncalisch*6ofanisch-<economische abhand-

/ungen. Halle 1765—^ 8vo.

Goedartms (Johannes) De insectis in methodum cum notularum additione.

Opera M. Lister, &c. cum Scarabaeorum Anglicanorum quibusdam

tabulis mutis. Londini 1685. 8vo.

Goexe (Johann. Aug. Ephr,) Natur menshenleben verschung.

Goldsmith (Oliver, LL.D.) History of the earth and animateA natvae.

8 vols. London 1774. 8vo,

VOL. !¥• 2 P

578 AUTHORS QUOTED

Good (John Mason, M.D.) Anniversary Oration, delivered Maich Stli,
1808, before the Medical Society of London.

Gould (William) An account of English ants, London 1747. 12ino.

Gramnhortt (J. L. C.) Coleojften. Microptera. Brunsvicensia nee non exoti-
corum quotquot extant in collectionibus Brunsvicensium.

Brunsvigae 1802. 8vo.

Grew (Nehemiah) Muueum Begaiis SodetoHs, or a catalogue and descrip-
tion of the natural and artificial rarities belonging to the R. Society,
and preserved at Gresfaam College, &c. London 1681. fol. V

Groner (Abb4) A general description of Chirui, (£. Tr.)

London 1788. 8vo.

GyUenhtd (Leonard) * Jn^ecta iS'tiecica descripta. Classis I. Coleoptera sire
Eleutherata. torn. 3. Scaris 1808. 8vo.

Haworth (Adrian Hardy) * LepidojHera. PnVannica, sistens digestionem
novam insectorum Lepidopterorum quae in Magna Britannia repeii-
untur, &c. Londini 1803—. 8vo.

ffermann (J. F.) Memoire apterologique. Strasbourg 1804. fol.

Herold (Mauritius) * Unitmckelungsgeschichte der schjneUerRnge anato-
mischeund physiologisch. Cassel und Marburg 1815. 4to.

ffo^Muse (John Cam) Some account of a journey into Albania, Romelia,
and other provinces of Turkey in 1809 and 1810.

London 1812. 4to.

Sooke (Robert, M.D,) Jiicrographia, or some physiological descriptions of
minute bodies made by magnifying-glasses, Sec, London 1665. fol.l/

Hooker (Professor) Journal of a tour in Iceland in the summer of 1809.

Yarmouth 1811. 8vo.

Home (Thomas Hartwell) Introduction to the study of Bibliography ; to
which is prefixed a memoir on the publick libraries of the ancients, &c.
2 vols. London 1814. 8vo.

Huber (Francis) New observations of the natural history of bees. 2nd ed.
(E. Tr.) Edinburgh 1808. 12mo.

— — * jyoKvelles observations sur les abeilles. torn. 2.

A Paris et k Geneve 1814. 8vo.

Huber (P.) * Recherches sur les moeurs desfoumUs indigenes.

A Paris 1810. 8vo.

Hubner (Jacob) * Der gamlung Europaischen schmetterHnge,

Augsburg 1796. 4to.

Hughes (Griffith) The natural history of Barbados, London 1750. foL

Huisk (Robert) A Treatise of the nature, economy, and practical manage-
ment of bees. London 1815. 8vo.

Humboldt (Alexander, Baron de) and Bonpland ( Aim^) Personal travds
to the equinoctial regions of the new continent during the years 1799
—1844. (E.Tr.) 5 vols. London 1818—. 8vo.

»—-——— Essais sur la geographie des plantes. ^ Paris 1805.

— Political essay on New Spain. (E. Tr.) London 1811. 8vo.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 579

HcriCBOLDT ( Alexander, Baron de) Recueil d*observations de zoologie et

d*anatomie compar^e. A F«ris 1805. 4to.

Hunter (John, M.D.) Observations on certain parts oithe animal economy,

London 1786. 4to.
Jdhilomky (Carl. Gustaf.) * Natursystem aller bekannten insekten. Ed.
Herfost. '(^er6sfja6^am(.) Berlin 1785 — . 8vo.

Jackson (James Grey) An account of the empire of Morocco and the dis-
trict of Suez ; compiled from miscellaneous observations made during
a long residence in those countries, &c. London 1809. 4to.

Jacqvxn (Nicolaus Joseph) Collectanea ad botanicam, chemiam, et historiam
naturalem spectantia. Vindobonae 1786.

72%0r (J. K. W.) * Versuch einer systematischen volstandigen Termino'
logie das thierreich und pflanzenreich. Helmstadt 1800. 8vo.

Inch (C. W.) Ideen zu einer zoochemia. 1800.

Jungitu (Joachimus) Historia vermium. Hamburgi 1691. 4to. V

Jvarme (L. ) * Nouvelle methode de classer les Hym^nopt^rea et les Dipt^res.
Tom. 1. Hym^noptdres. A Geneve 1807. 4to.

JTalm (Peter) Travels into N. America. (E. Tr.) 3 vols.

Warrington 1772. 8vo.
Rsmjffer (Engelbert) The history of Japan, (E. Tr.) 2 vol.

London 1728. fol.
JTeys (John) A treatise on the breeding and management of bees.

London 1814. 12mo.
Kirln/ (William) 'Jlfonographia Apum AngHae, or an attempt to divide
into their natural genera and families such species of the Linnean ge-
nus Apis as have been discovered in England, &c. 2 vols.

Ipswich 1802. 8vo.

Kleemann (Christ. Fried. Karl.) Beitrdge zur natur-^oder insecten ges-

chichte. Numberg 1761. 4to.

Knight (Thomas Andrew) A Treatise on the culture of the apple and pear,

and on the manufacture of cider and perry. London 1797. 8vo.

Khoch (August. Wilhelm) Beitrdge zur insecten geschichte.

Leipzig 1781—. 8vo.
Knox (Robert) An historical relation of the island of Ceylon.

London 1681. fol.

Lqfontaine. Traite de la chirurgie. Leipzig. 1792.

La Lande de Lignac (Joseph Albert) M ^moire pour servir k commencer

rhistoire des araign^s aqiuUigves. Paris 1 749. 8vo.

Lamarck (Jean Baptiste) SyMeme des anim&ux sans vertebra^ ou tableau

general des classes, des ordres et des genres de ces animaux, &c.

A Paris 1801.

— — «— — * Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebren pr^ntant les

caracteres gen^raux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution,

leur classes, &c. tom. 7. A Paris 1815—. 8vo.

- Philosophic zoolo^que. A Paris 1809. 8vo.

Lambert (John) Travels through the United States of America, Caruida,
and Georgia in the years 1806-— 8. 3 vols. London 1810. 8vo.

2 P 2

580 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Latham (John) A general synopds of birds. 3 vols. London 1781—. 4to.

Latbeillk (Pierre Andr6) • Hu<oire natmelLe g^n^rale et particuli^ des
crustac^s et des insectes. torn. 14. Paris 1802-—* 8^o.

— — — — * HUtoire natnrelle desfmrmis et recueil des m^moires et d*ob-
servations sur les abeilles, les araign^es, les faucheurs, et autres in-
sectes. A Paris 1802. 8yo.

■ * Genera Crustaceorum et /fuectonim secundum ordinem na-

turalem in familias disposita, iconibus exemplisque plurimis ezpBcata.
torn. 4. Pariais et Argentorati 1806-^ 8vo.

families na/urelles du r^gne animal, exposes sucdnctement et

dans un ordre analytique, avec Tindication de leurs genres.

A Paris 1825. 8vo.
et De Jean ( Baron) * Histoire naturelle et iconographie des in-

sectes Coleopthres dC Europe, A Paris 1823—. 8vo.

Leach (William Elford, M.D.) '•'The Zoofogical Mscellany, bdng a de-
scription of new and interesting animals, illustrated with coloured
* figures, &c. London 1817— h 8toi.

Leeuwenhoek (Antonio) Arcana naturo detecta.

Delphis Batavor. 1695. 4to.
..^— ^-i— - Arcana naturae opes et benefido exquisitissimorum microsco-
piorum detecta variisque experimentis demonstrata, &c.

Lugd. Batav. 1696. 4to.
-—«——— Epistolm physiolo^ce super compluribus naturae arcanis^ &c.

Delphis 1719. 4to.
* Select works of, containing his microscopical discoveries in

many of the works of nature, translated from the Dutch and Latin
editions published by the author, by Samuel Hoole. 2 vols.

London 1798. 4to.

Lehmann ( Mart. Christ. Gottl. ) 2)« sen^ibus extends ardmaRum. exsangmum,
insectorum scilicet et vermium, commentatio. Gottingae 1798.

— — — De an^ennis inKctonxai dissertatio prior fabricam antennarum
describens ; Dissertatio posterior usum antennarum recensens.

Londini 1799—. 12mo.

-Xempriere (William) Practical observations on the diseases of the amuf m
Jamaica during the years 1792 — 7. 2 vols. London 1799. 8vo.

Lesser (Friedr. Christ. ) Th^ologie des insectes, ou demonstration des per-
fections de Dieu dans tout ce que conceme les insectes, &c. Avec
des remarques de M. P. Lyonnet. (Lesser L.) tom. 2.

A la Haye 1742. 8vt».

Lewin (William) * The insects of Great Britain systematically ammgod,
accurately engraved, and painted from nature, &c.

London 1795. 4to.

Prodromus Entomolegi/, or natural history of Lepidopterous insects

of New South Wales. London 1805. 4to.

Lichtenstein (Ant. Aug. Hen.) Catalogus rerum naturalium rarissimarom
auctionis lege distrahendarum. {CataL Ham.) Hamburgi 1794.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 581

lAgon (Richard) A true and exact history of the island of Barbados.

London 1657. fol.

UNNE' (CarL Von) ^SysteonA Natures per regna tria naturae secundum

classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, syno-

nymls, locis. Ed. 13, tom. 3. Vindobonse 1767—. 8vo.

•^auna iSWcica. Sistens animalia Sueciae regni, Mammalia,

Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes distributa per classes, &c.
Ed. altera. Stockholmias 1761. 8vo.

Fion Lappomca, exhibens plantas per Lapponiam crescentes.

•m^

secundum systema sexuale, coUectas in itinere &c. anno; 1732 insti-
tuto, &C. Ed. J. E. Smith. £q. Londini 1792. 8vo.

-«— — Skanaka resa, fiirrattad ar 1749. {It, Scan,)

Stockholm 1751. 8vo.
XocAesis Lappomca, or a tour in Lapland, now first published

from the original MS. Journal of the celebrated Linnaeus, by Sir
J. E. Smith. 2 vols. (Lack. Lajyp,) London 1811. 8vo.

^mamitates Aaidemieas, seu diasertationes yariae physics, me-

dices, botanicae antehac seorsim editas, nunc coUectae et auctae, &c.
tom. 7. Lugd. Bat. 1749 — ^. 8vo.

*Pfttlotoph\a Botanica, in quaexpUcantur fundamenta botanica.

cum definitionibus partium, exemplis termlnonim, observationibus
rariorum, &c. ed. 2da. Viennae 1783. 8vo.

Xister (Martin, M.D.) ^ffistonx antmalium Jnglm tnciatus de Aran&a.

Londini 1678. 4to.

LxoNVBT (Pierre) *Trait6 an«tfomique de la chenille qui ronge le bois de
saule, &c. A la Haye 1762. 4to.

Mac Kinnen (Daniel) A Tour through the British W. Indies during the

years 1802—3, giving a particular account of the Bahama islands.

2nd ed. London 1813. 8to.

MacLkat (William Sharp) * Haras Entomologies, or essays on the annu-

lose animals.

Vol. 1. Part I. containing general observations on the geography,

manners, and natural affinities of the insects which compose the genus

Scarabaus of Linnaeus^ &c. London 1819. 8vo.

Vol. I. Part IL containing an attempt to ascertain the rank and

situation wiiich the celebrated Egyptian insect, Scarabauss acer, holds

amongst organized beings. London 1821. 8vo.

*AnmUossi Javanica, London 1824. 4to.

Magnus (Albertus) Opera, tom. 21. De natura. animalium, fol.

Malpighmt (Marcallus) Opera omnia, tom. 2. (De Bombyc)

Londini 1686. fol. j

JikTars^m (Thomas) *J?n/omologia JSritonnica (E,B.) sistens insecta Bri*

tanniae indigena secundum methodum Linnaeanam disposita. tom. 1.

Coleoptera. Londini 1802. 8vo.

Martin (George, M.D.) Essays and observations on the construction and

graduation of thermometers, and on the heating and cooling of bodies.

Edinburgh 1792.

582 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Martyr (Peter) The decades of the New Wwrldj or West Indies. (E. Tr.) .

London 1555. 4to. ^
Matthiolus (Petr. Andr.) Commenttaii in libros Dioscon^s de Medics

Materia. Venetiis 1554. foL V

Mead (Richard, M.D.) Medicina, Sacra, sen demorbis insignibus qui in

Bibliis memorantur ; or a commentary on the diseases mentioned in

Holy Scripture. London 1749* 8vo.

Meigen. * Nonvelle classification des mouches k deux ailes (Dyjtera L.)

d*apres un plan tout nouveau» A Paris 1800. Sto.

•—-— * Systematische beschreibung der bekanuten Europ. zweifliigeli-

gen Insecten. Aachen 1818 — . 4to.

Jl/man (Maria Sibylla) * Metamorphosis insectorum .Surfnamensium. In

qua erucaa et vermes ad vivum delineantur et describuntur, &c.

Amstelod. 1705. foL
■ ^rucarum ortus, alimentum et paradoxa metamorphosis.

Amstelsed. 1718. 4to.
Mills (John) An essay on the management of bees, &c. London 1766. 8yo.
Moldenhawer (Job. Jac. Paul) Beytrage zur anaiofEfde der j}flansxD»

Kiel 1812—. 4to.
Molina (I. Ignatius) The geographicali natural, and ciyil history of ChilL
2 vols. (£. Tr.) L<^don 1809. 8vo.

Monro ( Alexander, M.D. ) The anatomy of the human hones and nerves,
&c. Ed. Kirt>y, M.D. Edinburgh 182a 12mo.

Morier (James) A second journey through Persia to Constantinople be-
tween the years 1810 — 16. With a journal of the voyage by the Bra-
zils and Bombay to the Persian gulf. London 1818. 4to.
Mouffet (Thomas) * /yuectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrum. .

Londini 1634. foL ^
MiiUer (Otto. Frideric.) Zoohpa Danica, seu animalium Daniae et Nor-
vegis rariorum ac minims notorum descriptiones et historia. vol. 2.

Hafnise et Lipdie 177^-^ 8vo.
Olioier (Guill. Antoin.) * J^n^omologie, ou histoire naturelle des insectes,
avcc leur caractdres g^n^riques et specifiques, leur description, leur
synonymic, et leur figure enlumin6e. Coleopt^red. tom. 8.

A Paris 1789—. 4to.
■ Travels in the Ottoman empire, Egypt and Persia. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.

London 1813. 8vo.

Osbeck (Peter) A voyage to China and the E. Indies. Toreen (Olof ) A

voyage to Suratte, and an account of the Chinese husbandry by Capt.

C. G. Ekeberg. (E.Tr.) 2 vols. London 1771. 8vo.

Paley (William, D.D.) NcUurai Tkedogy, or evidences of the existence

and attributes of the Deity collected from the appearances of nature.

1 Ith ed. London 1807. 8vo.

Pallas (Peter Simon) Spicilegia zoologica, quibus novae imprimis atque

obscurae animalium species describuntur, et observationibus iconibus-

que illustrantur. Hagae Com. 1766—^ 4to.

— A^eue norrfische beytrdgQ zur physikali&chcn und gcographischcn ertf

AUTHORS gUOTED, 583

und volkerbeschmbung, naturgeschichte und oekonomie. (N, NortL
Beytr,) St. Petersburg und Leipzig 1781 — . Syo.

Pallas (Peter Simon] Travels through the southern provinces of the Rus-
sian empire in the years 1793, 1794. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.

Leipsig 1801. 4to.
Panzer ( Georg. Wolfgang Frana. M. D. ) * JPauna insectorum Germanicas
inUlsu Deutschland's insekten. Heft 1— >109. (JFn. Germ.)

Numberg.

Park (Mungo) Travels in the interior districts of Africa, performed under

the directioa and patronage of the African association, in the years

1795—7, &c. 2nd ed, London 1799. 4to.

' The journal of a mission to the interior of Africa in the year 1805:

together with other documents, oflScial and private, &c 2nd ed.

London 1815. 4to.
Parkinson (James) Organic remains of a former world. 2 vols.

London. 4to.
Peck (Professor) Natural history of the slug-worm.

Boston, N.£. 1799. 8vo.
Perckfol (Robert, Capt) An account of the island of Ceylon, containing its
history, geography, natural history, with the manners and customs of
its inhabitants. London 1803. 4to.

Persoon (Christian. Henric) Sjynopns methodic&Jungorumy &c,

Gottingae 1801—^ 12mo.
fexold (Ch. Ph.) Lepidopterologische anfangsgriinde zum gebrauch au*
gehender schmetterlingssommler. Coburg 1796. 12mo.

Piso (Guliehnus, M.D.) De India utriusque re naturali et medica, &c.

Amstehedami 1558. foL^
PUnius iZuZoria.mundi namralis. Francofurti ad Moen. 1582. fol. V^
Pos9eU (Carl Friederich) Beytrsege zur anatoade der tfuekten.

Tubingen 1804. 4to.
Preysler ( Johann. Daniel) Verzeichniss Bohmiscker ins^en,

Prag. 179a 4to,

Pulteney (Richard, M.D.) Historical and Biographical Sketches of the

progress of botany in England, from its origin to the introduction of

the Linnean System. voL 2. London 1790. 8vo.

Pwrckas (Samuel) His Pilgrimes. ^ London 1625. fol.

Uamdkor (Karl. August) * Abbildungen zur ano^omie der tmecten.

Halle 1809—* 4to.
Rat (John) Cotalogus Plantarum circa Cbn/abrigia nascentium, &c

Londini 1660, l2mo, ^
I Hiftoria P/an/arum, species hactenus editas aliasque noviter inventas
et descriptas complectens. Londini 1686. fol. >/

The wisdom of God manifested in the works of creation.

London 1692. 8vo. \/
«— — « HistonsL Jnsectorum, cui subjungitur appendix de Scarabasis Bri.
tannicis autore M. Lister. Londini 1710. 4to. ^

584? AUTHORS QUOTED.

Rat (John) Philosophical LetUrs between the late learned Mr. Ray and

several of his ingenious correspondents ; to which are added those of

F. WiUughby, Esq. published by W. Derham. London 1718. 8vo. sj
Reaumur (Ren^ Antoine Ferchault de) *Memoires pour senrir a This-

toire des insectes. torn. 6. A Paris 1734—. 4to.

JRedi (Franciscus) Qpuacuiorum pars prior sive experimenta drca gene>

rationem insectorum, &c, Amstelasd. 1686. IBmo. >/

~-— Oinuculonim tomus alter. Experimenta circa varias res naturales

speciatim iUas quse ex Indiis aff»iintur. Amstelaed. 1685. 18mo. ^
Reeve (Henry, M.D.) An essay oil the torpidity of animals.

London 1809. 8to.
Mifferschtveils ( Johann. Jacob Hegetschweiler) * Dissertatio inaugurslis

zootomica de insectomm genitalibus, Turici 1820. 8yo.

Boenier ( Johaan. Jacob) * Genera insectorum Linnasi et Fabricii iconibus

illustrata. Vitodur. Helvetor. 1789. 4to.

Bosel von Rosenkoff (August. Johann.) * Der nionatlich>herausgegeben

insecten belustigung. Nurnberg 1746—. 4to.

JRosti (Petrus) . J'auna JEtrusca. sistens insecta quae in provinciis Floren-

tina et Pisana ^xsertim colligit Libumi 1790. 4to.

Rudolphi (C. A.) Entoxoa, seu vermium intestinalium ^historia naturalis.

^<>1- 2. Amsterd. 1808. 8vo.

Sabine (Edward, Capt J An account of the AnimaTa seen by the late Korth-

em Expedition whilst within the Arctic Circle, &c.

J-A>ndon 1821. 4to,
St. Pierre (James Hen. Bemardin) A voyage Ux the Mauritius or Isle of

France, the Isle of Bourbon, the Cape of Good^Hope, &c. (E. Tr.)

London 1775. 8vo.

— — — StutUes from Nature. (E. Tr.) 4 vols. London 1796. 8vo.

Samouelle ( George) ♦ Th6 Entomologist's useful compendium, or an intro-
duction to the knowledge of British insects, &c. London 1819. 8vo.

Sandwith (Thomas) * An introducd<m to anatomy and physiology for the
use of medical students and men of letters. London 1824. 12mo.

Sauvages (Francois Boisier de) Observations sur rorigin de mid.

Nismes 1763.
Savi (Paolo) Osservammi per servire alia storia di una specie de lulus

^ommunissima nella pianura Pisana. Bobgna 1817.

Saviont (Jules Cesar) * M4moires sur les animaux sans verthhres, Par-

^^ I- \^' A Paris 1816. 8vo.

— Systhne des Annelides principal^ment de celles des cotes de TEgypte

et de la Syne *. f^L

Scheele (Charles William) Chemical observations and experiments on air

andjire. (E. Tr.) London 1780. 8vo.

* This memoir, which was sent me by its learned author, is stated as
part of the first volume of his Histoire NatureUe,^K.

AUTHORS gUpTED. 585

ScheUenberg (J. R.) * Cwiicvaa. in HelvetisB aquid et terris degentium Me-
lius in familias redactum observationibus et iconibus ad naturam de-
}in«atis illustratum. Turici 1800. 8yo.

I * Genres de vwwihe* Pipt^es represent^ en xui planches*

Zuric 1803. 8vo.

JSldmdder (Dayid H^inrich) Systematische beschreibiing der Europaischer
schmetterlinge. Halle 1787. 8vo.

SchSnherr (C.J.) * Synonynia, insectorum, oder versuch einer synonymie

' . aller bisher b^annten insecten nach Fabricii Systema Eteutheratorum

gteordnet. torn. 3. Stockbolm 1906. 8vo.

JSchrank (Frandscus de Paula) Enumen^o tfwectorum Axmna^ indige-
Borum. Augusts VindeUcorum 1781. 8vo.

SdvwenjiJefeeld (Caspar, M.P*) Theriotroph^iim.SileAB^ in quo animalium,
b. e. quadrupedum, reptilium, avium, pisoium, insectorum natuira, vis,
et usus sex lihris.perstringuntur. Lignicii 1603. 4to.'

ScopoK (Johann. Anton.) J?»i/emologia CanuoHca. exhibens insecta Car-
niolisB indigena et diatiibuta in ordinesy genera, species, varietates
methodo Linneana. {Eni. CamioL) Vindobonae 1763. 8vo.

■ -' Anni historico-natuniles. Lipsiee 1769-— w 8vo.

Scrtim (Ludwig .Gottlieb.) Beitrage zu der insekten geschichte.

Frankfurt 1790—. 4to.

Servidms (Natfaanel) Histona sueoiooruxn .corpora aliena involyentium,
&C. * Lipsias 1742. foL

■Sepp (Chrifltian) «Beschowing der wonderen Gods inde minstgracbte
sdiepgelen of Nederlandsche-insecten, &c torn. 2.

Amsterdam 1762. 4to.

SUkaw (Thomas, D.D.) 2VaM2s and observations relating to several parts
<>f Bttbifffy and the Levant. 2nd ed. London 1757. 4to.

Shaw (George) The naturalist's mucelleny, or coloured figures of natural
objects, drawn and described immediately from nature.

London 1789— w 8vo.

Sfwrach (Adam Gottl.) Htaqm naturelle de la reine des abeilles, avec
Tart de former les essaims^ &c. (F. Tr.) A la Haye 1771. 8vo.

Smeaihman (Henry) Some account of the Termxtes which are found in
Africa and other hot climates. (From the Philosophical Transac-
tions). ^ London 1781. 4to.

Syne^ (William) The philosophy of natural history.

Edinburgh 1790. 4to.

SmUh (Sir J. £.) Sketch of a tour on the continent in the years 1786 and
1787. 3 vols. London 1793. 8vo.

* The natural history of the rarer Lepidopterous insects of Georgia^

collected from the observations of John Abbott. 2 vols.

London 1797. 4to.

Tracts relating to natural history. London 1798.

— — Introduction to physiological and systematic botany.

liondon 1807. 8vo.

586 AUTHORS gUOTED.

Sorg (F. L. A. W.) Disquisitionee physiological circa respirationetn trt-

sectorusnetvermium, Rudolst. 1805. I2moi.

Southey (Robert, LIxD.) History oi Braaak London 1810— ^ 4lo.

Sowerby (Jamei) * British misceUanj, or coloured figures of new, rare, or

little-known animal subjects, many not before ascertained to be na»

tives of the British Isles, &c London 1806*^ 8yow

SpaUansard (Lasaro) Qpiacoli di^ca animale e vegetahile.

Modena 1776. 8ya

■ ■ Dissertations relative to the natural history of animals and

vegetables. (£. Tr.) London 1784. Svou

Memoias on respiration, (E. Tr,) London 1804. 8vo.

Sparrman (Andrew) A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope^ towards the
Antarctic Circle and round the world, but chiefly into the country of
the Hottentots and Cafifres. 2 vols. London 1785. 4to.

Science (William) Observations on the disease in turnips termed in Hol-
demesse .fingers and toes. Hull 1812. 8vo.

Sprengel (Christian Conrad) Das erUdeckte geheimmss der natur in bau
und in der befirucktung der blumen. Berlin 1793. 4|iow

Spreng/d (Curtius) * CommetiUiAaB de partibus quibus insecta spiritus
ducunt. LipsiaB 1805. 4to.

Staunton (Sir George) An authentic account of the embassy from the king
of Great Britain to the emperor of China, 3 vols.

London 1797. Svo,

Stedman (J. C. Capt.) Narrative of a five years expedition against the re-
volted negroes of Surinam in Guiana, on the wild coast of & America,
from 1772 to 1777. 2 vols. London 1796. 4to.

Stkkney ( WiUiam) Observations respecting the grub. Hull 1800. 8vou

StUHngfleet (Benjamin) Miscellaneous tracts relating to natural histoiy,
husbandry, and physick, translated from the Latin. 2nd ed.

London 1762. 8vo.

Stoever (D. H.) The life of Sir Charles Linnaeus; to which b added a
copious list of his works, and a biographical sketch of the life of his
son. (£. Tr.) London 1794^ 4to.

StoU (Caspar) « Representation exactement color^ d'apres nature des
cigales qui se trouvent dans les quatre parties du monde, Sec

Amsterdam 1788. 4to.

•~— - * Representation, &c. des punaises ditto. Amsterdam 1788. 4to.

I ^[Repr^ntation, Sec des spectres ou phasmes, et des mantes ou des

feuilles ambulantes, des sautereUes, des grillons, des criquets et des

Matiesy &c. Amsterdam 1813. 4to.

Straekt Neue. schriften der naturforschenden. Halle 1810.

Sturm (Jacob) * Deutschlands Fauna in abbildungen nach der natur mit
beschreibungen. tom. 4. Numberg 1805— .w 12mo.

SwAMMZKDAM ( Johu, M.D. ) * The Book of Nature, or the histoiy of in-
sects reduced to distinct classes, confirmed by many particular instances
displayed in the anatomical analysis of many species, and illustrated

AUTHORS QUOTED. 587

with copper-plates. (E. Tr.) [Swamm, BiJbL Not, Hills. /Sfiwwum,}

London 1758. foL

T/ienard (L. J. ) Traii^ de Chirme iUmentavre th^rique et pratique, torn. 2.

A Paris 181 S. Syo.

jTAom/^jon (Thomas, M.D) System of chemistry. London 1802— .

Tkoiiei/ (John) 'NLiXurvfiXoyMt or the female monarchy, being an inquiry into
the nature, order, and government of bees, &c. London 1744. 8tou

Thunberg (Charles Peter) Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, performed
between the years ] 770 and 1 779. ( E.,Tr.) 4 vols. London 1 795. 8vo.

Treviranus (G. R. Von) * Ueber den innem bau der Arachmdea.

Numberg 1812. 4to.

Trost (P.) Kleinen Beytrage zur Entomologie, &c. Erlangen 1801. 8vo.

Tu^prt» (Nioolaus) 06«ervatione8 medics. Amstelaed. 1652. 8vo.\/

Tusser (Thomas) Five hundreth points of good husbandry, united to as
many of good houswifery, first devised, and now lately augmented
with diverse approved lessons concerning hopps and gardening.

London 1573. 4to.v^

UUoa (George Juan de) A voyage to S. America, describing at large the
Spanish cities, towns, provinces, &c. on that extensive continent, &c.
2 vols. London 1760. 8vo.

Vaillant (Le) Travels into the interior parts of Africa by the way of the
Cape of Good Hope, in the years 1780—1785. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.

London 1790. 8vo.

Vaknlia (George, Lord) Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, the Red
Sea, Abyssinia, and Egypt, in the years 1802—1806. 3 vols.

London 1809. 4to.

VaBisnien (Antonio) *Esperienxe ed osservazioni intomo all origine, svi-
luppi, e costumi di vari insetU, con altre spettanti alia naturale e me-
dica storia. Ed. 2. In Padova 1726. 4to.

Voe4 (Johannes Eusebius) Icones insectorum Coleopterorvan, Ed. Panzer.

Erlangen 1793. 4to.

Walckenaer (C. A.) * Tableau des AranBdes, ou caract^res essentielles des
tribus, gdnres, families, et races que renforme le g^nre Aranea de
Linne, avec la designation des especes comprises dans chacun de ces
divisions. Paris 1805. 8vo.

—....—— ^M^moires pour servir a I'histoire naturelle des abeilles soli-
taires qui composent le genre Halicte, Paris 1817. 8vo.

Walt(m (Izaac) The universal angler, made so by three books of fishing :
the first written by Mr. Izaak Walton, the second by Charles Cotton,
Esq., and the third by CoL Robert Venables. London 1676. 12mo.

WaUon* Present state of the Spanish colonies, including a particular report
of IBspaniola, &c, with a general survey of the settlements on the S.
continent of America, &c. 2 vols. London 1810. 8vo.

If eld (Isaac) Travels through the states of N. America and the provinces
of Upper and Lower Canada in the years 1795 and 1797,

London 1799. 4to.

V

588 AUTHORS QUOTED.

ffhiie (Gilbert) * The tuUixnX history of Sdiborne. New ed. by Marck-
wick. 2 vols. London 1813. 12nio.

Wiedemann (C. R. W.) Archiv. fiir xoologie & zootomie.

Berlin und Brunschweig. 1800 — .
i I Diptera exotica: Pars I. Kilise 1822. 12mo.

Wildman (Thomas) A tcfiBtise on the:ovuiagement of bees, 2nd ed.

London 1769. 4to.
Wilian (Robert, H« D.) Description and treatment of cutaneous diseases.

liondoni 1801. 4to.
WUldenow (Carh Ludwig.) Grundriss der kraturkunde.

Berlin 1792. 8vo.
I 1. — The principles of botany and of yegetable physiology. (£. Tr. )

Edinburgh 1811. 8yo.
Young (Arthur) Annals of agriculture and other useful arts. 40 vols.

Bury St Edmunds 1790— s 8vo.
Travels during the years 1787-—] 789, undertaken more particularly
with a view of ascertaining the cultivation, wealth, resources, and
natural prosperity of the Jungdom of France. 2 vols.

Bury St. Edmunds 1792. 4to.

TRANSACTIONS OF PUBLIC BODIES.

TVansactions (Philosophical) of the Royal Society of London, with the

Abridgements of Lowtborp and Dr. Shaw. 4to.

. of the Linnean Society of London. 4to.

— ^— of the Horticultural Society. 4to.

of the Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and

commerce. 8vo.
— — {JsiaHc Researches) of the Society instituted in Bengal for in-

quiring into the history and antiquities, the arts, sciences, and litera-
ture of Asia. 4to.
>• of-the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for

promoting useful knowledge. 4to.
liemoirs of the Wemerian Society. 8vo.
MSmoires de 1* Academie royale des sciences. A Paris. 4to.
• " nouveaux de T Academie de Dijon pour la partie des sciences et

arts. 8vo.

de 1* Academie royale des sciences » Turin. 4to.

^nnales du Museum national d*histoire naturelle. 4to.

Jil^moires du Museum national d*histoire naturelle. 4to.

Acta physico-medica Academiae Ceesareae naturae curiosorum. (Nova

ActOy EphemerideSi &c.) 4to.
JTon^, Firtenskaps Academiens n^a handlingar, Academia regia scien-

tiarum Suecana. (Act. Stock.) 8vo.
Communications to the Board of Agriculture. 4to.

AUTHORS gUOTED. 589

PERIODICAL WORKS.

^nna& of botany (Konig and Sims). 4to

of Philosophy (Thompson).

Annates de chimie, ou recueil de m^moires concernant la chimie et les

arts qui en dependent. Paris. 8vo.
Annali di chimica.

BuUetin des sciences naturelles et de geolog^e (De Ferussac). 8vo.
Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry, and the arts (Nicholson's).

— _ Edinburgh medical and surgical.

■ Zoological. 8vo.

Massachusetts Agricultural. 8vo.

— de physique (Abb^ Rozier, &c.).4to.

fUr die liehaber der entomologic (Scriba). 8vo.

MagaxmBi Tilloch*s Pkilosophical,

Magazm Berlinisch^ (Martini, JBerUn naiural history Societies),

Neuestes f iir die liehabers der entomologie (Schneider, 8vo.

■ Neu. entomolog. (Fuessli, Entomologischebemerkungen.) 8vo.

f iir das neueste aus der physik und naturgeschichte^ &c. (iMhten-

berg & Voigt), 8vo.

•fiir insektenkunde (lUiger). 8vo.

■ •der entomologie (Dr. Germar und Dr. Zicken Gennant Som-

mer), 8vo.

EncydopSdiquCf ou journal des sciences, des lettres et des arts. 8vo.

Ndturforscher der (The naturalist).

Review. London medical.

Systematisches verzeichvass der schmetterlinge der fTteTMrgegend, &c. 4to»

DICTIONARIEa

Dictionary of Chemistry (Messrs. Aikih).

medical (Dr. Hooper's). 8vo.

Dictunmaire Physique.

"— »— * iVbuveau dCERstoite ^a^relle. torn. 36, Svo.

des sciences naturelles. 8vo.

Enq/cloptBdia Britannica. 4to.

N. B. Fallen's Mow^raphia Cimicum Stteda, Diptera Sueda, and Och-
senheimer's Die Schmetterlinge von Eurapa, though omitted in the note
p. 471, arc particularly recommended to the Entomological student.

i

I

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXr.»

FIG.

1. Part of the interior of Cossus ligniperda. (Lyonnet.)

a, b. The spinal chord and its ganglions, d. The bron-
chiae connected with the trachea.

2. Oiie of the labial palpi of ditto. (Ibid.)

3. Another view of the interior of ditto. (Ibid.) a. Trachea.

b, Bronchis. c. CEsophagus. d.. Ventricle or stomach.

c. The lower intestines, if. The bile vessels, g. Se-
ricteriumf or silk reservoir, h. ScaHsterium^ or saliva
vessel.

4. Part of one of the tracheae of ditto^ to show its coats and

spiral thread. (Ibid.) Vol. IV. p. 6%

5. A portion of the interior of ditto, to show the epiploon^

or fat. (Ibid.) a a* Epiploon. Vol. IV. p. 144.

6. Leg of ditto laid open. (Ibid.) a a a. Seroipenniform

muscles of ditto, b. Their lower point of insertion in
the claw, c. Muscles of the coxa. Vol. IV, p. 178.

7. Nervous system of the grub of Oryctes ntmcornis.

(Swamm.) a. The first ganglion or brain, c. The re-
maining ganglions, forming a thick spinal chord.

d. The nerves issuing from them.

8. - — of the louse. (Ibid.) a. The brain,

ccc. The ganglions, d. Nerves.

9. The spinneret, or organ that renders the silk of the Cossus.

(Lyonnet.) Vol. III. p. 124.

" Vol. IV. Letters XXXVII. and XL.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 591

PLATE XXII. •

FIG.

1. Male genital organ of a Bombus. a. The male organ.

6. The prehensor. Vol. IV. p. 562, 565.

2. Female ditto of the louse. (Swamm.) a. The oviduct

with an egg passing through it. be. The ovaries.
d. The coUeteriuniy or varnish secretor. e. The lower
extremity of the oviduct.
% 4. Larvas as arranged in the body of two species of vivi-
parous flies. (Reaum.) Vol. I. p. 254.; IV. p. 164.

5. Interior of postpectus. Dynastes, a. Parapleura.

b b b. Points of the postfurca. c. Its stalk.

6. The medifurca of ditto, a. Base. b. Apex.

7. Antefurca of ditto, a. Base.

8. Mesothorax. Calandra,

9. Mesophragm and appendage. Dynastes. a a. Pieces

adjacent, b. Septula, c. The notch for the transmis-
sioif of the intestines.

10. Part of metaphragm, ditto, a. A kind of cupule afford-

ing a point of attachment to muscles, d. A deep notch
for the intestines.

11. Interior of the upper side of alitrunk of ditto, a. The

cavity of the chest between the prophragm and meso-
phragm. b. Ditto between the mesophragm and me-
taphragm. c. Cupules that afford a point of attach-
ment to some of the wing-muscles, d. Notch of the
metaphragm.

12. Portion of the alitrunk of Mdoloniha wdgans. c. Cupule

attached to the axis of the wings.

13. Part of the postpectus of Dytiscus marginalise to show the

operculum. Vol. III. p. 580.

14. Part of the metathorax of Meloloniha vulgaris, to show

the metapnystega. Ibid. 574.

15. The pseudocardia, or dorsal vessel of Stratyomis Chanue'

leon, (Swarom.)

• Vol. IV. Letter XLII. ; III. p. 581—

592 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

115. a. — tu. Specimens of scales from the wings of various Le-
pidoptera* (Reaum., De Geer.) Vol. III. p. 646 — .

PLATE XXIII.

1. One of the prolegs of a cateqpillar. Cossus. (Lyonnet.)

a. Its coronet of spines. Vol. III. p. 135.

2. One of the spiracles of ditto. (Ibid.) Vol. IV. p. 37 — .

3. Three of the hexagonal lenses of a bee's eye, with their

prisms. (Swamm.) Vol. III. p. 497.

4. Trunk of a flea with the head removed, showing that ail

the legs are attached to the former. Ibid. p. 658.
5.. Alitrunk of Dytiscus marginalisy exhibiting the wings as
they are folded when unemployed.

6. Part of ditto, with the scutellum and apex of an elytrum,

to show the alula. Vol. II. p. 348. ; III. 560.

7. Anterior and posterior prolegs of Tanypus maculatus,

(De Geer.) a. Posterior proleg. b. Anterior ditto.
Vol. II. p. 278 ; IV. p. 354.

8. Posterior extremity of a pupa, to show the cremastrcd^ or

hooks by which it is suspended, a. Hooks. Vol. III.
p. 210, t56 ; IV. p. 354.

9. Another specimen, in which the hooks are more nume-

rous, a. Hooks.
10. Pidex penetrans, or the Chigoe. Vol. I. p. 49, 102.
1 1 .* Mandible of the larva of Myrmeleon Formkaleo. (Reaum.)

Vol. III. p. 121.
12. Anal spinneret of ditto. (Ibid.)
] 3. Branching palpus^ or feeler of Trombidium hohsericeum.

14. Part of the tarsus of a spider^ to show the simple and

pectinated claws. (De Geer.) Vol. III. p. 691.

15. A pair of spinners of a spider. (Leeuwenh.) Vol. III.

p. 392.

16. A mammula or teat of ditto. (Ibid.)

17. Anus of ditto.

18. Stilt-legs of a dipterous larva. (De Geer). Vol. III.

p. 136.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 593

PLATE XXIV.

FIG.

!• The bag-net. Vol. IV. p. 516.

2. The landing-net. Ibid. p. 521.

3. Mr. PauPs net. Ibid. p. 517.

4. The fly-net. Ibid. p. 518.

5. The forceps. Ibid. p. 520.

6. The breeding-cage. Ibid. p. 540.

7. Apparatus for e£Pectually killing large moths, &c. a. The

upper piece of the tube. b. The lower, c. The sauce-
pan. Ibid. p. 530.

8. A beetle transfixed by a pin. Ibid. p. 531.

9. A butterfly, ditto, with the wings set out by card braces.

Ibid. p. 534.
10. A scale of two inches, with one subdivided into lines,
twelve to the inch.

PLATE XXV. '^

1. Antenna with a lamellate knob.

2. Ditto Ditto

3. Antenna with a pectinate knob.
4j, , ■ , cirrate.

5. I with a tunicate knob. Inside view,

6. ■ Outside view.

7. — — — clavate, with clava solid.

8. • serrate.

9« — — — - with an inflated knob.

10. gradually incrassate.

11. biflabellate.

12. — ' with a patellate scape, a. Scape.

13. with a solid knob.

14.. . . clavate, with last joint elongated.

15. broken.

16, . — unguiculate. a. Claw.

VOL. IV.

» Vol. IV p. 316-,
26

594 EXPLANATION OF THE PLAISBS.

FIG.

17. Antenna scopiferous. a. Stellated brush.

18. suddenly incrassate, and biserrate.

19. ■ capillaceousy and suddenly incrassate. (StoU.)

20. -. bipartite.

21. clavate, with clava subramoSe.

22. ' bipectinate.

23, , broken.

24«. suddenly incrassate.

25. -pectinate. 5'*

26. • serrate. 9.

27. filiform, and submoniliform.

28. Auriculate. a. Auricle.

29. ■ appendiculate. a. Antenna, b. Appendides.

30. capitate, with a multiarticulate knob,

31. spiral.

52. fasciculate.

33. . capitate, with a transverse solid knob.

34,. « capillaceous^ or suddenly attenuated. (Latr.)

35. embracing the eye. Vol. III. p. 525.

PLATE XXVL»

1. Feeler, maxillary, bmellate and appendiculate. a. Ap-

pendicle. 6, Last joint lamellated. c. Second joint.
Vol. III. p. 4?50, note ^. Atractocerus.

2. —i— — ^— — heteromorphous. Cerocoma,

3. • fasciciilate^ Lymoxyhn.

4. . ■ incrassate.

5. -. clavate.

6/. — conical.

7. ^ — subulate.

8, fusiform.

9, Maxilla compound, with the lobes spinous.
10. unarmed.

• Vol. IV. p. 309-315. Vol. UL 416—456, 490. v2. 681. e.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. , 595

FIG.

11. Maxilla compound, with the uf^r lobe biarticolate.

Vol. III. p. 443.

12. ^ ■'-" with the lobes peucillate.

13. simple, mandibuliform, lobe unarmed. (Mac-

Leay.)
]4, ■ ■ lobe penidllate^ (Ibid.)
15. toothed. (Ibid.)

16. Mandibula. Curculio Hancocki K.

17. Rhipicera marginata K.

18. Eurhinus lavior K.

19. ' . Manticora Gigas,

20. -— ^ Euchlora viridis.

21. ' Macraspis tetradactyla,

22. Apogonia gemeUata K.

23. Labium, &c. of Stenus.

24i Stomis. (Clairv.) a. Lateral lobes of

tongue. & Intermediate lobe.

25, ■ Geotrupes. External view.

26. Internal view^

27. ■■ ■ . Hister maximus, (MacLeay.)

28. ■ ■ Leistus, (Clairv.)

29. ., . Meldontha Stigma F.

30. Labrum whiskered. Halictus, a, Appendicle.

31. MegachUe,

32. Pekcium K.

33. . Chasmodia viridis M*L.

34. Genuchus K.

35. . CremasiochUm Knoch. Vol. III.

p. 4'23.

36. Lateral view of the head of Tetraopes Dalm., to show the

eye wholly divided by the canthus.

37. Part of the trunk of a spider, to show the position of ite

simple eyes.

38. Eyes compound, columnar. Xenos*
39^ , Ephemera.

40. Eyes compound and stemmata of Reduvius personatus.
4,1^ .. .. Fulgoralalemaria. Stem-
mata subocular^

2s2

596 EXPLANATION^ OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

42. Eyes compound and stemmata of Cerccpis. Stemmata

intraocular.

43. Eyessimplcy dorsal* Phalangium.

44. 45. Claw-joint of tarsus ofLamiay to show the arthrium.

46. .■ -^— Vespa Crabro,

47. Tarsus of Entimus imperialis. a. The rotula or ball re.

ceived by the socket of the tibia.

48. The penultimate bilobed joint of ditto, with the arthrium

separated from the daw-joint.

49. Part of the claw-joint so separated, a. Muscles which

enter the arthrmm.

PLATE XXVII.*

1. Head of Calandra Palmarvm. a a. Muscles fixed in the

myoglyphides or muscle-notches.

2. ■ Apoderus Coryli,

5. Buprestis acuminaia.

4. Copris, a. Muscles.

5. Elater. a a. Corneous scales analogous to pax-

wax, attached to the depressor muscles, like those of
Geotrupes. Vol. IV. p. 176. ^

6. ' * tibia. Calandra Polmarum,

7. End of thigh, ditto, next th^ tibia.

8. , ■' Dynastes, Vol. Ill, p. 672. note *.

9. Headof tibia of ditto.

10. ■ ' -^ Copris bucephalus. Vol. III. p. 671.

11. End of thigh, ditto, next the tibia.

12. Middle coxa. Melolontka vulgaris, a. The open part

which receives the muscles.

13. Posterior ditto, ditto, a. The open part.

14. Head of posterior thigh of ditto.

15. End of ditto next the tibia. GryUus.

16. Head of tibia of ditto. Vol. III. p. 670—.

17. Lateral view of ditto.

• Vol. III. 527, 663-.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 597
FIG.

1 8. Lateral view of the head of the coxa of Lamia, a. The

point of attachment with the body, or the orifice through
which the muscles pass.

19. Back view of ditto.

^. Posterior trochanter oilchneumony biarticulate. Vol. III.
p. 666.

21. Tibia of Arachniday to show the epicnerois.

22. Multiarticulate spiral antenniform tarsus of Scutigera.

23. Armed thigh. Seaurus.

24. tibia. Hispa spinipes,

25. Auriculate posterior tarsus. Dasifies ater,

26. Armed anterior ditto. ditto.

27. anterior coxa. MegachUe WiUughbieUa.

28. — trochanter. Necrophorus.

29. Calcar or spur, thumb-shaped. Anterior tibia of Sphinx

Atropos*
SO. Calcar of posterior tibia. (Enas qfer.
31. ■■ ■ anterior ditto. Zabrtis gibbus,

52. ■ intermediate ditto. Acanthopus splendidus,

33. ■ posterior ditto. AmmophUa vulgaris,

34. ■ Acanthopus splendidus.

35. . intermediate tibia. Cintbex ViteUince,

36. Calcar and velum of anterior ditto. Apis mellifica, a. The

notch in the first tarsal joint.

37. Claws of Anomala Frischii.

38. Macraspis quadrivittata*

39. — — Serica brunnea,

40. — MdoUmlha vulgaris*

4<l. Posterior tarsus. Acheta monstrosa,

42. Part of tarsus of Scolopendra.

43. Lebia^ to show pectinated claws.

44, PhauiBus.

45. Part of tibia of Onitis Apelles $y to show its very mi-

nute tarsus. Vol. III. p. 337.

46. Double claws of Oxypterum,

47. Claws. Anoplognathus.

598 EXPLANATION QF THE PLATES.
716. /

48. Claws. Haplia. Anterior tarsus.

49. «-_ Mdolontha mkspinosa.

50. Pecten of Scorpio europatis*

51. Claw of Hoplia, posterior tarsus.
52, Meloe variegate.

53. Pulvilli and claws of the AsUida.
54i. ■- Tabanus.

55. ■ Hive-bee.

56. Pulvilli and pseudonychia. Lucanus Cervus.

57. ^..— ...i.— ..-.-1..^ Ceionia Lanitis.

58. Segment of the body of lulus. Showing that two pairs

of legs are attached to each segment \

59. Tarsus ofPriocera, with involute pulvilli.

60. Nirmus Anseris,

61. Xenos Pedkii.

62 Melittophagus K. Vol. 1. 162. IV. 225.

63. Acarus Ricinus. (De Geer.)

PLATE XXVIII.

r

1. Inside of elytrum of Dt/tiscm marginalis.

2. ■ . Di/nastes Aheus^ Part of hypo-
derma peeled off.

3. Part of ditto ofBuprestis vittata, to show the axis.

4. ■» Passalus.

5. > ■ Dynastes.

6. — . Ehter sukatus, to show the epipleura.

7. ■ Blaps leikiferay ditto.

8. - Dynastes quadrispinosus, ditto.

9. AKtrunk and part of tegtnina and wings of LocusUt.

a. Space marked by the transverse nervure in which all
the nervures of the anal area terminate. Vol. III.
p. 620.

• N.B. The transverse lines m the figure are merely unpressed,
and do not represent a segment.

EXPLANATION OF TH1E PLATES. 599

10. Alitrunk and part of elytra and wings ofMdohntha hor-

ticola,
1 1 ^ ^ I- tegmina and wings of Fidgora latent

naria. PostfrcBnum funiculate, with an elastic part

marked a. Vol. III. p. 560.
12. hcmr^y^**" ^'^'^ wingra nf Pimiatoma.

13^ 1 11 wings of Panorpa.

2^^ ,..««_— ——-^ Trichoptera*

15 , T^dr^jirn^ ^ Geometra.

16. T^jiidnjAera.

lY, - nij^jn-n^

18. Wing^f Chermes Fraxini,

19. Tegmen of Locustu.
20. Issus,

21. Wing. Cercapis sangttinolenta.

22. — — Locusta.

2^. Hemely trum of Reduvius ?

PLATE XXIX.*

1. Gitls of a spider. (Treviran.)

2, — Scorpio europcBtts. (Ibid.)

s! Aeriductsoflarvaof£pAem^ra/tt5Co^^fl. (DeGeer.)

Vol. IV. p. 58. ,

jt ^- . vesperiina. (Ibid.) Ibid.

^' ^ - ^vulgaia. (Ibid.) Ibid.

q[ .^ SiqUis lutaria. (Ibid.) Ibid.

r. Thiead-like ditto of the upper and under side of the larva

of Trichoplera. (Ibid.) Ibid. p. 56.
8 Part of the body of the larva of a Libettula, laid 6pen to

show the trachea. (Reaum.) a.a.a. Trachea. Vol.IV.

9. P«t of the imago of ditto. (Ibid.) a. Vesicles that

• Vol. IV. LETTEft XXXVIII.

600 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIO.

terminate the trachen. b. Oblong ditto. Vol. IV.

p. 68.
10. Pupa of Corethra culiciformis. (De Geer.) a. b. Vesicles

connected with the tracheae, c. Tail. Vol. IV. p. 67.
) 1 . Part of the head of Gtomeris zonalis. a. Pseudo-spiracle.

Vol. III. p. 494.

12. Part of the trunk of Staphylinus oUns^ to show its ante-

pectoral spiracle. '^Vol. IV. p. 43.

13. Part of the abdomen of Pneumora. a. The series of

ridgesy by striking the bind leg over which they pro-
bably produce their noise. Vol. II. p. SQ5 ; III. p. 340.

14. Underside of part of the alitrunk of Lygcetis sexmacu-

latus K. MS* b. Branchiform apparatus between the
scapula and parapleura. Vol. IV. p. 45.

15. I Pentatoma rufipes.
a. Corrugated membrane, b. Apparent fringe of hairs
or bristles. Ibid.

16. Spiracle of larva of Oryctes nasicomis* (Sprengel.)

17. '., Dytkcm marginalis. (Ibid.)

18. Part of the trachea and bronchise of the pupa of Smerin-

thusPopulL (Ibid.)

19. Spiracle of the imago of Oryctes nasicomis. a. The boss.

(Ibid.)

20. Dorsal spiracle of ScuHgera*

21 • Pencil of hairs attached to a supposed respiratory plate
in certain Noctuce. Vol. IV. p. 60.

22. Part of the back of the abdomen of the pupa of a Penta-

toma, a. Pseudo-spiracle, b. Connecting corrugations.
Vol. III. p. 714.

23. Unilabiate spiracle of Gonyleptes.

24. Portion of ventral segments of abdomen of Aradus lamu

nattL$ K. a, Tobaccopipe*shaped organ near the ven-
tral spiracles. Vol. III. p. 714.

25. Part of the back of the alitrunk oiBelostoma grandis, to

show the roetapnystega? or rather spiracle. Vol. III.
p. 574 ; IV. p. 45.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 601

FIG.

26. Pseudo-spiracle of Epeira cancriformis. Vol. III. p. 715.
27* Part of the ventral segments of the abdomen ofLygceus
compressipes. a. Pseudo-spiracles.

28. Portion of dorsal segments of Dytiscus marginalise to

show the large anal spiracles. Vol. IV. p. 42.

29. Plumiform gills in the mouth of the spiracles of the larva

of Cosstis ligniperda* (Sprengel.)

PLATE XXX.

1. Brain, spinal chord and ganglions of a full-grown cater.

pillar of Pirns BrassidB. a. The brain* i. The dou-
ble spinal chord, c d* Ganglions with a portion of their
nerves.

2. Bram, spinal chord and ganglions, after Pffx> days, when

the chord is shortened.
3. • — when the animal is

become a pupa.
4.. ■ when it has been a

pupa six days.

5. ■ ■ ■ ■ just before it assumes

the imago.

6. I when it has become
a butterfly. Vol. IV. p. 24? — .

?• Intestinal canal of the caterpillar, a. Saliva vessel, b. Silk
reservoir. cGyxWet or (esophagus, £^. Stomach. ee^.Bile
vessels. /• Large intestine, g. Rectum.

8. ■ i ■ ' after it has assumed the

pupa two days.

9. ■ after eight days. a. Crop
or honey-stomachy first showing by the dilatation of the
base of the cesophagus.

10. ■ a. Honey-stomach be-

come a lateral appendage of the cesophagus b.

1 1 . ■ of the butterfly, a. Honey-stomach.
b. CEsophagus. c. Small intestine become very long,
rf. Rectum. Vol. IV. p. 112.

602 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
VIO.

12. Anal portion of the interior of the female butterfly.
a, Oraries. & Ovidact. c. QJletemim or varnish
secretor. d. Spermatheca or sperm receptade. e. Part
of the spinal chord, f. Rectum, g, A secretory organ
filled with a thick white fluid, which is supposed to
lubricate the passage. Vol« IV. p. 1264

ANATOMICAL INDEX^

Vol. III. 354—.

Abdomen, 387, 699; iv. 550.

Acetabulum, 384, 429.

Aculeus, 391.

Adminicula, 255; iv. 354.

Aeriductus, iv. 50, 353.

Alse, 618; iv. 335.

Alitnincus, 371, 547; iv. 330.

AUux, 386.

Alula, 373, 381, 625; li. 358.

Amphiarthrosis, 431, note.

Anteflirca, 369, 586.

Antennae, 366, 510; iv. 316.

Antepectus, 368, 543 ; iv. 328.

Antlia, 362, 469.

Anus, 390.

Apophysis, 429.

Appendices, 391.

Appendicula, 355.

Areee, 374, 597, 607, 614, 623.

Areolae, 375, 625, 632; iv. 341.

Arthrium, 386, 684.

Artieulatio, 408, 596, 606,6 1 4,6 1 9,

655, 664, 670, 682, 699.
Axis, 372, 374, 607, 614, 619.
Basis, 361.

Brachia, 369, 546 ; iv. 329.
Branchue, iv. 60.
Bronchise, iv. 61.
Bulbus, 366, 516,
Bulks, 626.

Calcaria, 370, 385, 676.
Calx, 386.

Canalis excretorius, iv. 563.
Canthus, 365; iv. 313.
Capitulum, 366 ; iv. 322.

Cf^ut, 355, 405; iv. 305.
Cardo, 357, 440.
Cauda, 389; iv. 351.
Caudidse, 392.
Centris, 389, 717.
Cephalophragma, 367.
Cephalotheca, 249.
Ceratheca, 250.
Cerd, 392.
Cerebrum, iv. 7.
Chela, 462, 463.
Choroides, 497.
Clavicula, 369, 663.
Clavola, 366, 517.
Coecum, iv. 102.
CoUare, 371, 548.
Colleterium, iv. 126.
Colliun, 367, 526.
Commissura, 381.
Corium, 373, 401.
Cornea, 496.
Coronida, 369, 385.
Corpus, 354 ; iv. 304.
Coiysterium, iv. 127.
Coxa, 384, 663 ; iv. 346.
Cremastrse, S56 ; iv. 354.
. Cubitus, 369, 670.
Cultelli, 362.
Cuius, 390.
Cytodieca, 350.
Dentes, 356, 438.
Diarthrosis, 404, note.
Digitulus, 676.
Digitus, 386.
Dorsolum, 372, 553; iv. 331.

* N.B. Where the volume is not indicated, the t/urd is to be understood.

604

ANATOMICAL INDEX,

Duodenum^ iv. 101.

Dura mater, iv. 7.

Elastesy 389, 715.

Elytra, 372, 595; u. 347 ; iv. 333,

Etiarthrosis, 404, 412,682.

Endostemum, 393, 586.

Epicnemis, 385, 670.

Epidermis, 401.

Epigastrium, 388, 708.

Epipharynx, 359, 458.

Epipleura, 373, 598 ; iv. 334.

Epiploon, iv. 144,

Epistomis, 476.

Ereisma, iv. 353.

Esoderma, 403.

Exoderma, 402.

Fades, 364.

Fsedfurca, 353.

Femur, 384, 667 ; iv. 347.

flla, 392.

Fistula, 362.

Flosculus, 392.

Foliola, 392.

Foramen, 389.

Forceps, 391.

Forfex, 391.

Frsenum, 378, 559.

Frons, 365, 484.

Funiculus, 389, 701.

Furca, 392, 715.

Fusi, 392.

Fusidus, iv. 352.

Ganglia, iv. 8.

Gastrotheca, 251.

Gens, 365, 488.

Ginglymus, 404, 431, 682.

Glossotheca, 250.

Gomphosis, 433.

Gonytheca, 384, 670.

Gula, 367.

Halteres^ 381; ii. 358.

Hamuli, 381; ii. 357.

Hamus, 376; ii. 353.

Haustdlum^ 361.

Hemelytra, 373, 613; iv, 335.

Humerus, 369, 667.

Hypochondria, 388, 709.

Hypoderma, 373, 600.

Hypopharynx, 359, 458.

Hypopygium, 390, 707.

Ileum, iv. 101.

Incisores, 3.56.

Intestina jEMrm, iv. lOl.
magna, iv. 102.

loterium, iv. 127.

Jejunum, iv. 101.

Jugulum, 367, 526.

Labella, 361.

Labium, 355, 420.

Labrum, 355, 418 ; iv. 309.

Laminse, 362.

Laniarii, 357.

Ligamenta Nuchae, iv. 176.

Ligula, 363.

Lingua, 358, 451 ; iv. 312.

Lobi, 358, 442.

Lobuli, 377*

Lora, 367.

Mammulae, 392.

Mandibulae, 356, 428; iv. 309.

Manitruncus, 368, 534 ; iv. 326.

Manus, 370, 681.

Mastida, 150; n. 252; iv. 353.

MaxiUae, 357, 439 ; iv. 309.

Medifurca, 379, 587.

Medipectus, 378, 562.

Meditruncus, 548.

Medulla tpinalu, iv. 8.

Membrana, 374, 615.

Mentum, 355, 424.

Mesophnigma, 379, 583.

Mesostemura, 379, 566,

Mesostethium, 382, 576.

Mesothorax, 371, 548 ; iv. 330.

Metaphragma, 382, 584.

Metapnystega, 381, 574.

Metastemum, 383, 579.

Metatliorax, 379, 570; iv. 348.

Mola, 357, 437.

Molares, 357.

Molula, 385.

Mucro, 388.

Musculi, iv. 168.

Myoglyphides, 367, 527.

Nasus, 364, 475; iv. 313.

Nervi, iv. 14,

Neura costalis, 375, 627.

poslcostaliSy 376, 628.
medkutina, 376, 627.^
exterfuhtnedia, 376, 628.

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

6O5

Neura subextenuMneduif 376.
hUemO'media, 376, 628.
sidnrUemo-mediaf 376.
anaUi, 377.
axUiarUy 377.
Neuras, 375 ; iv. 340.
tubcostalety 376.
tpurke, 377.
Nodi, 389.
Nucha, 367.
Occiput, 365, 487.
Ocufi, 365, 490; iv. 313.
(Esophagus, iv. 98.
Opercula, 383, 580.
(>a, 368, 536.
Os, 355; iv. 308.
Osmaterium, iv. 128.
Ovaria, iv. 148.
Oviductus, iv. 148.
Ovipositor, 390; iv. 151, 351.
Palatum, 455.
Palma, 370.
Palmula, 370.
Palpi, iv. 310.

maxitlarety 358, 447.
labialesy 356, 425.
Papillae, 402.
Paraglossse, 359.
Parapleura, 382, 577.
Parastigma, 377.
Patagia, 366, 539.
Patella, 664«
Pectines, 383, 696.
Pectus, 393.
Pedes, 653; iv. 343.
intemtedu, 379.
potiici, 383.
Pedicellus, 366, 517.
Peristethium, 378, 562,
Pessella, 384.
Petiolus, 389.
Pharynx, 359, 456.
Phiafum, 375, 600, 625.
Phragma, 368, 582.
Pia mater, iv. 7.
Planta, 385.
Plantula, 386.
Pleurae, 380, 574.
Pnystega, 378, 562.
Podex, 390, 707.

PoUex, 370.

Postdorsolum, 380, 570; iv. 348.
Postfiraenum, 380, 572; iv. 349.
Postfurca, 383, 588.
Postnasus, 364, 483.
Postpectus, 382, 579.
Postscutellum, 380, 572 ; iv. 348.
Potruncus, 570.
Proboscis, 361, 466.
Promuscis, 360, 464.
Propedes, 134; ii. 288; iv. 353.
Prophragma, 371, 582.
Prostemum, 369, 544.
Prostheca, 356, 439.
Prothorax, 368, 535 ; iv. 326.
Pseudo-cardia, iL 29 ; iv. 82.
Pseudo-nychia, 386.
Pseiido-pecten, iv. 389.
Pseudo-spiracula, 713.

Pterop^a, 372.

Pterygium, 381.

Pulmonarium, 713.

Pulvilli, 386, 692.

Pylorus, iv. 99.

Rectum, iv. 102.

Respiratoria, iv. 48.

Rete mucosum, 401.

Retina, 497.

Retinaculum, 391.

Rhinarium, 364, 481.

Rostellum, 363, 472.

Rostrulum, 362, 471.

Rotula, 429, 664.
I Rumulae, iv. 353.

Sacculi, iv. 63.

Scalpella, 361—363.

Scapula, 309, 664.

Scapularia, 378, 564.

Scapus, 366, 516,

Scutellum, 378, 555; iv. 331.

S^menta, 387, 706.
Sensorium commune, iv. 18.
Septula, 382, 585.
Sericterium, iv. 122.^
Sialisterium, iv. 124.
Siphonuli, 393.
Siphunculus, 363.
Soiea, 386, 692.
Solenaria, 362.
Spermatheca, iv. 146, S70.

606

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

Spicula, 391.

Spiracula, 368, 379, 382, 387,

388 ; if. 37.
Squama, 389.

Stemmata, 365, 504; iv. 315.
Sternum, 393, 344.
Stigma, 377 ; iT. 343.
Stipes, 357, 441.
Styli, 399.
Subfades, 366, 5^6,
SyneurosiB, 431, note.
Synof ia, 489, 6$6.
Svringia, 150; iv. 353; ii. 2^^
Talus, 385.

Taran^ S8^ 681 ; iv. 346.
T^gmina, 873, 606; iv. 355.
Tenuis, 377.
Tempora, 365, 489.
Tenao, 381 ; ii. 353.
TerebellflB, 391.
Tergum, 387.
Tastes, ir. 564.
Theca, 361.
Thorax, 393.
Tibia, 384, 670; iv. 347.
Torulus, 366, 515.

Tracheie, iv. 61.
Trochanter, 384, 644 ; iv. 346.
Trochlea, 701.
TropH, 355, 417; iv. 308.
Truncus, 367, 539; iv. 326.
Tubulus, 363, 390.

TVmpanum, 388 ; iL 205.
Umbones, 368.
Und, 390.
Ungues, 358, 445.
Unguiculi,. 386, 690.
Ui^Bfo, 386, 684.
Uvea, 497.
Vagina, 361.
Vasinula, 390.
Valvae, 391.
Valvulse, 362.
Vasa deferenHay iv. 564.

hepaiica, iv. 103.
Velum, 370.
Venter, 388.
Ventriculus, iv. 99.
Vertex, 365, 486.
Vesiculs reipiratoria, iv. 66.
semmales, iv. 563.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX*.

Abbreviatus, 261. c", 333./', 345.
Acclivis, 298.
Achatinus, 288.
Acidus, 301.
Acies, 294.
Acinacicatus, 262.
Acinadformis, 265.
Acquidtus,/', 345.
Acuductus, 271.
AcuIeiformiSy Mi 352.
Acundnatus, 295.
Acutus, 294.
Adhaerens, d/ 310.
Adiaphanus, 285.
AdjunctuSy C. 850.
Adinatus, d/ 310. v', 349.
^duneus, J9, 351.
^neus, 283.
^ualis, /," 336.
^quatus, 269.
iBquidistantes, 344.
^ruginosus, 281.
Alatus, fl, 328. /', 347.
Albus, 278.
Aliformis, d", 335.
Alliaceus^ 301.
Ambiens, a. 327.
Ambulatorius, /', 345.
AmethystinuSy 283.
Amplectens, c. 331.
Amplexus, A. 306.
Ampliatus, c". 334.
Anceps, 267.
Aneurosus, f." 34a
Angularis, A."' 342.
Angulatus, a, 328.

Anguloso-undulatus, 290.
Angulus, c.'" 333.

humeraUs, //' 339, 340.

icutellaru, //' 339, 340.

posterior. /," 339, 340.

anaUt. /," 339, 340.
Angustatus, 260. k, 323.
Augustus, 260. /," 338.
Annulatus» 291.
Annulus, 285*
Antenniformis, ^".311.
^tepectoralis, /,' 344.
Anterior,*, 314./," 335./, V, 345.
Apertus, c', 309. k, 318, c, 930.

k,'" 341. t', 348.
Apex, 268, 294. cJ' 333.
Afnculatus, 295.

Appendiculatus, h", 311. k, 325.
Applicans, /," 337.
Approximatus, k, 316. «^|-, 344.
Apterus, 343.
Arcuatus, 263.
Areatus, c. 331. A/", 341.
Areolatus, 291. ^", 341.
Argenteus, 283.
Annatus, 6, 329.
Armillatus, 291.
Aromaticus, 302.
Articulus, 297. k, 325.
Ascendens, 298. k, 332.
Asper, 277.
Ater, 282.
Atmosphsera, 287.
Atomus, 285.
Attenuatus, 260. k. 319.
I Aurantius, 279.

* Where the yolunw referred to is not indicated, ihefimrth is to be under*
stood. The reader mU also be pleased to obsenre that the refefences to Partial
Orismology are accompanied by Hbe characteristic mark of ^sicb part, as given
in the table, Vol. III.

608

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

AureuSy 283.
Auricula^ 301.

AuricuIatuSy k, 325. a, 328.
330. c", 333.

Azureusy 280.
Badius, 282.
BarbatU8» 277. k^ 324.
BasiSy 268, 294. c^\ 333.
Biardculatus, 325.
BicaudatuSy /'\ 338.
Bifidus, 296.
Bipalpatusy 308.
BipartituSy 296. k. 321.
Bipectinatus, k, 321.
Bisectus, 305. g. 330.
Biserratus, k, 320.
Brevis, k, 317.
Brevier, k, 317.
BrevissiinuSy k, 317.
BrunneuSy 282.
Buccatus, A. 307.
Cxlatin, 273.
Cseruleus, 281.
Caesius, 281.
CaJcar, 300.
Calcaratus, /', 348.
Calcediformis, 267.
CallosuSy 258.
Calms, 277.
Campanulatus, k, 325.
Canuicuiatus, 272.
Canalifonnis, v/f 349.
Canalis, 294.
Canceilatus, 291.
Ciq[>iUaceu8, k, 322.
Capillaris, k, 319.
CapistratuSy A, 307.
Capitatus, k, 322.
Capitulum^n/e, k, 322.

tumcatum, 323.

soUdum^ 323.

ffifiatuiUy 323.
Carinatus, 272.
Carneus, 279.
Camo8U6, 259.
Cartilagineus, 258.
Camncula, 301. iii. 539.
Castaneus, 282.
CatenuiatuSy 274.
Caudatus,/", 338.

a".

Centipesy /', 344.

Cemuus, A. 305.

Cenriculatus, a, 327.

Cervinus^ 281.

Chalybeus, 383.

Chelatus, c', 309.

Cheliferus, D, 351.

Chrysalis, i. 67.

Cicatricosus, 272.

Ciliatus, 278, 315. k, 324.

Cimicinus, 301.

Cinereus, 279.

Cingens, h, 314.

Cingulatus, 291.

Cinnamomeus, 282.

Circularis, 261.

Circumaixibiens, a. 327.

Circumseptus, /", 340.

Cirratus, K, 321.

Cirrosus, 277.

Cirrus, 277.

Clathratus, 272.

Ciathrosus, 271.

Clavatus, 263. k. 322.

Claviformis, 267.

Clypcatus, A, 307. a, 327. j", 329.

CoSitus, 299, 305; e, 330. ^'j S3I .

u\ 349. C, 350.
Coccineus, 280.
Coecus, W, 343.
Coleoptra, c", 333.
Colliformis, a, 326.
Colligatus, 299.
Columnaris, b, 315.
Comatus, 278.
Communis, 293.
Compactus, 304.
Complanatus, 272.
Completus, i. 67.
Complicans, c", 334.
Coropositus, 301. d', 310. h, 314.

k, 324.
Compressus, 259.
Concavus, 269.
Conchiformis, g", 332.
Concolor, 291.
Confluens, 292.
Conglomeratus, fa. 314.
Conicus, 265.
Connatus, 299. k^ 317.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

609

Connectens, ^", 341.

Connivens, 293. /'", 337.

Conspersus, 288.

Constrictus, 268.

Consutus, 274.

Contiguus, 292. k. 317.

Convergens, 299.

ConvexuSy 269.

Convolutiis, k, 318. /", 336.

Convolvens, d", 335.

Corbiculatus, *", 347.

Cordatus, 261.

Cordiformis^ 265.

CoriaceuSy 258.

Corneus, 258.

Cornu, laminatuSf 300.
nutanSy 300.

Coronatus» /"', 840. //, 354.

Cornigatus, 274.

Costalis, k"', 342.

Costatus, 272.

CrassuSy 260. k» 319.

CrenatuSy 296.

Crepera, 285.

Crinitus, 278.

Crispus, 293.

Cristatus, 272. k, 323.

Croceus, 279.

Cruciato-compUcatus, /", 337.
Cruciato-incumbens, /", 337.
Crudatus^ 296. a, 328. t/> 349.
CnistaceuSy 258.
Crystallinus, 283.
Cubicus, 261.
CucoUatuSy 328.
Cucumiformis, 265,
Cultratus, 263.
Cultriformis, 266,
CuneatuSy 262.
Cundfomiisy 265.
Cupreus, 283.
Cuspidatus, 295.
Cyaneus, 280.
Cylindricus, 267.
Cymbiformis, 305.
Deauratus, 284.
Deciduus,/', 344.
Declivisy 298.
Decolor, 291.
Decussatus, 297.

VOL. IV.

Deflexus, k, 318. f", 338.
Oehiscens, c", 324.
Deltoideus, 266.

Dens, 300.

DentatuSy 297. c', 309. d\ 310. k,
320.

DenudatU8> /", 339.

Depressus, 219.

Descendens, 298.

Detectus, ^', 335.

Deuteromesus, k"\ 343.

Diaphanus,. 285.

Dicerus, k. 316.

Dichotomiis, 297. /", 337.

Didymus, 293. F', 342.

Digitatus, *", 329. /", 338.

Dilatatus, 260, 294. k, 319.

Dimerus, B, 326. ^', 347.

Dimidiatus, c", 333.

Dipterus, 343.

DiscoidaliSy d"', 334.

Discolor, 291.

Discus, 268.

Disjunctus, 304.

Distans, 300. k, 316. r', 344.

Distichus, k, 321.

Distinctus, 292, 300. k^, 331. u\
348. D, 351.

Divaricatus, 297.

Divergens, 299. /", 338.
Dividens, A', 313.
Dolabratus, *", 329. /", 338.
Duplicatilis. /", 336.
Duplicato-pectinatus, k, 321«
Ecninatus, 273.
Edentulus, c'. 309.
Elabratus, 308.
EUipsoideus, 264.
Ellipticus, 261.
Elongatus, 261.
Emandibulatus, 308.
EmarginatuSy 295. a, 327.
Ensatus, 262. M', 351.
Ensiformis, 265. k, 320.
Erecto-patens, /", 337.
Erectus, 298. /", 387.
Erosus, 296.
Evanescens, a, 327.
Exarticulatus, k. 324.
Excalcaratus, i'', 348.

2r

610

ORI9MOLOOICAL INDEX.

Ezcavatus^ 869.
Excisus, 295.
Ezcurvus, k. 318.
Ezertus, A, 306. M\ S52.
Expalpatus, 308.
ExpansuSy f", 337.
Ezplanatus, a^ 327.
Ezscutellatus, 332.
Eztensufly /". 337.
Eztraocularifl, k. 316.
Eztricatus, M\ 352.
Falcatus, 263./", 338.
Falciformis, 320.
FarinosuSy 275.
Fascia, 289.

pyraimdata.

atOcuiata,

dMdiata.

abbreviata,

sesquialiera,

saquitertia, 290.
FasciatuSy om,

Fasciculatus, 277. h", 31 1. k, 324.
Fasciculus, 277.
Fastigiatus, c", 333.
Fastig^um, 294.
Fencstratus,/", 339.
Fenestrella, d", 335.
Ferrugineus, 282.
Filatus, 294. k, 324.
Filiformis, k, 318.
Fimbriatus, 278. k. 324.
Findens, h, 313.
FissuSy 295.
Fixu8,y , 346.
FlabeUatus, k. 321.
Flavus, 279.
Flexilis, 259.
Flocculatus, p'\ 346.
Foetidus, 302.
Foliaceus, 259. *", S47.
FoUiculus, 354.
Forcipatus, b'. 352.
Fomicatus, 267. a. 313.
Fossorius,/', 345.
Fossula, 270.
Fossuiatus, 270.
Foveola, 270.
Foveolatus, 370.

Fractus, 299. k. 317.

Frontalis, i. 315.

Fulcrans, ^r", 346.

Fulj^dus, 279.

Fubginosus, 282.

Fulvus, 281.

Fundus, 294.

Funiculatus, t/, 849.

Furcatus, 297. k. 321.

Fuscus, 282.

Fusiformis, 267. h". 312. k. 320.

Gemiiius, 293.

Geniculatus, 268. k. 317.

Gibbosus, 273.

Gibbus, 269.

Glaber, 277.

Glaucus, 279.

Globifer, k. 323.

Grabatue,/', 354.

Granula, 273.

Granulatus, 273.

Griseus, 279.

Gutta, 285.

Guttatus, 285.

Hastatus, 262.

Heteromorphus, h", 312.

Hexaedrus, 266.

Hexagonus, 266.

Hexapus, 243.

Hieroglyphicus, 285.

Hirsutus, 266.

Hirtus, 276.

Hispidus, 276.

HoIosericeuB, 276.

Horizontsdis, 298» 801./", 387.

Hyalinus, 285.

Imago, i. 68.

Imbricatus, 274. k, 320.

Immarginatus, a, 327.

Immersus, h, 314.

Imperfectus, 308.

Inasqualis, 270, f", 336.

Inauratus, 284.

Incanus, 279.

Incisura, 297.

Incisus, 295.

Inclusus, a, 313.

Incrassatus, 260, 294. k. 319. r'',

347.
Incompletus, k!'\ 342*; i. 68.

aRISMOLOUICAL IND£X.

611

Incumbens,/", 337.
Incurvus, 298. k. 318.
Inermis, 6. 329./', 354.
Inferior, h, 314.
Inflatus, h". 311.
Inflezus, 298. A, 306.
Infundibuliformis, 267.
Infuscatus, 292.
Inocularis, k, 316.
Inosculans, 300.
Insciiptus, 285.
Insectus, C, 350.
Insertus, A, 306.
Insula, 285.
Insulatus, /"', 340.
Integer, 294. k, 317. c", 333.
Interdpiens, qf', S46,
Interocularis, k. 316.
Interstitium, 271.
Intenrallum, 272.
IntranSy h, Sl3.
Intraocularis, i, 315.
Intrusus, A, 306.
Involutus, 298.
Iridescens, 292.
Iris, 287.

Irregularis, k. 322.
Irroratus, 285.
Lsevigatus, 269.
Laevis, 269.
Laciniatus, 296.
Laciniformis, g", 332.
Lacteus, 278.
Lactifloreus, 278.
Lacunosus, 270.
Lageniformis, 268.
Lamellatus, h'', 311.
Laminatus, y , 346.
Lanatus, 275.
Lanceolatus, 262.
Lanuginosus» 275.
Larva, i. 63.
Latens, ^, 348.
Lateralis, h, 314.
Latus, 260./", 338, k, 319.
Lenticularis, 264.
Liber, d', 310.^", 846.
Ligneus, 259.
Ljguliforniis, e', 312.
Lilacinus, 280.

Limbatus, 291.
LimbuR, 268.
Linea, 290.
Linearis, 263.
Lineatus, 290.
Linguiformis, e', 312
Litura, 285.
Lituratus, 285.
Lividus, 281.
Lobatus, 296. k, 325.
Longior, k, 317.
Longissimus, k, 31 7.
Longitudinalis, 298.
Longus, 261.
Loricatus, r", 347.
Lubricus, 277.
Luniformis, 268.
Lunula, 285.
Lunulatus, 263. h'\ 311.
Luridus, 281.
Luteus, 279.
Lutosus, 275.
Lychnidiatus, A, 307.
Macula, 285.
Maculatus, 285.
Mammillatus, h", 311.
Mandibuliformis, d', 310.
Maniformis, h"^ 3U.
M argaritaceus, 282.
Marginalis, d"', 334. *"', 341.
Marginatus, a, 327.
Margo, 268.

exterior,/", 839.

interior,/", 339.

posterior,/", 339.
Marmoratus, 989.
Mediocris, k, 317.
Medipectorsdis, r , 344.
Medius, h. 314.
Melissceus, 302.
Membranaceus, 258.
Miniatus, 279.
Mollis, 260.
Moniliformis, k, 320.
Monomerus, B, 325. ^', 847.
Moschatus, 301.
Motatorius,/', 345.
Mucro, 300.

Mucronatus, 295. h, 322.
MultiarticuHitus, k, 325.

2 B 2

6I'i

y

OHlftMOLOGICAL JNDEX*

Multlfidiu, S96.
MuItipartituB, 296.
Multisectus, 305.
Muricatus, 273.
Mutilatufly c", SSS.
Afyriapusy 344.
Mystacmus, a', 309.
Natatorius,/', 345. C, 352.
Navicularis, M\ 351.
Nebolosus, 288.
Nenrulus, /", 340.
Neurosus,/", 340.
Niger, 282.
Nitidus, 284.
Niveus, 278.
Nodosus, 268. k, 320.
Nudus, /", 338.
Nutans, A, 305.
Nympha, i. 67.
Obesus, 260.
ObliquuB, 298.

Obliteratus, 274, 292. u\ 349.
OblouguSy 261.
Obscurus, 284.
Obsoletus, 293.
Obtectus, e", 335 ; i. 68.
Obtusus, 290.
Obumbrans, ^', 332.
Obumbratus, c, 351.
Obversus, 299.
Obvolvens, a, 328. c' 384.
Ocellus, 286.

c6BctUy 287.

tpuriuty 287.

simplex, 287.

complexus^ 287.

nictiians, 287.

fenestrattUf 287.

eUoptrattUf 288.

geminattis, 288.

didymus, 288.

sesquialterus, 288.
Octopus, 343.
Odoratus, 302.
Olivaceus, 281.
Opacus, 284.
Opalinus, 283.
OpercuIatuSy h, 315.
Orbiculatus, 264.
Ordinatus, 292. h, 3 IS.

Orichalceus, 283.
Ovaliformis, 268.
Ovalis, 261.
Ovatus, 261.
Oviformis, 265.
Pagina, 268.

superior,

inferior.
Palatiformis, e', 312.
Palmatus, k, 321. <", 329.
Papillifer, D, 351.
Papillula, 274.
Papillulatus, 274.
Parallelogrammicus, 264.
Paralleio])ipedu8, 267.
Parapleuriticus, 382.
Partitus, 296.

Pateilatus, k, 325. a", 330.
Pateriformis, k, 325.
Patulus, /", 337.
Pectiuatus, k, 321.
Pectunculatus, d', 310.
Pedifonnis, h", 311.
Pedunculatus, A, 306. h, 315,
Pellitus, 278.
Penicillatus, 277.
Penicillus, 277.
Pentaedrus, 266.
Pentagonus, 266.
Perfectus, 308.
Perforatus, c", 334.
PergameneuSy 258.
Persistens,/', 344.
Petiolatus, k'". 342. C, 350.
Phoneticus, c, 331.
Piceus, 282.
HlosuSy 275.
Pinguis, 260.
Plaga, 285.
Planus, 269, f", 336.
Plectrum,/", 339.
Plicatilis,/", 336. C, 350.
Plicatus, 294. c", 334.
Plumatus, k, 324.
PlumbeuSy 284.
Plumosns, k, 234.
Pluxnulosus, 276.
Poilinosus, 275.
Pblyedrus, 266.
Polygonus, 966.

ORISM0L061CAL INDEX.

ei3

Polypus, S44.
Porcatus, 273.
Porosus, 270.

Porrectus, 299. A, 305. k, 317*
Porus, 269.
Postcostalis, k"'g 342.
Posterior, h, 314. i", 336.
Postpectoralis, df, 344.
Prsemorsus, 295.
Praeocularis, k. 316.
Prasinus, 281.
Prehensorius, rff , 346.
Primariiis,/". 335.
Prismaticus, k. 320.
Prismoidalis, 266.
Productus, 295. a, 328.
Prominens, A, 305. h. 315.
P^onus, 299, 308.
Protomesus, ^", 343*
Pruinosus, 284.
Pubescens, 276.
Palvenilentus, 275.
Pulvinatus, a. 328.
Punctatus, 270.
Punctum, 270.
Puniceus, 280.
Pupa, i. 64.
Pupilia, 287.

hoitata.

suffidta.
Purpureus, 280.
Pyramidalis, 265.
Pyriforrais, 267.
Quadrangulusy 262.
Quadratus, 263.
Quadriarticulatus, k, 325.
Quadrifidus, 296.
Quadripartitus, 296.
Quinquangulus, 262.
Radians, F', 342.
Radiatus, 290. F', 341.
Radius, /", 338.
Ramosus, 297. k, 321.
Ramulosus, k"', 342. •
Raptorius, /', 345.
Receptus, k, 318. A/, 332.
Reclmatus, 298.
Reconditus, A, 306.
Recumbens, 298.
Recurrens, /"', 341.

Recurvus, 298. k, 318.
Reflexus, 298. k, 318. M\ 352.
Rejectus, At', 332.
Renicula, 285.
Repandus, 297.
Resupinatus, 299,
Reticulatus, 272. kf", 341.
Reticulosus, 271.
Retractiiis, A, 306, 308.
Retractus, A, 306, 308. C, 358.
Retusus, 295.
Revelatus, e, 330.
Reversus, 299. /'', 338.
Revolutus, 298. k, 318.
Rhombiformis, 266.
Rhomboideus, 264.
Rigidu8» 259. k, 318.
RJmosus, 270.
Rivosus, 271.
Rorulentus, 275.
Rosaceus, 302.
Roseus, 280.
RostraUs, k, 316.
Rostratus, A, 307.
Rotatorius, 301.
Rotundatus, 261, 295.
Rubineus, 283.
Rufus, 280.
Rugosus, 272.
Sagittatus, 262.
Salebrosus, 273^
Saltatorius,/', 345. C, 351.
Sanguineus, 280.
Scaber, 273.
Scopatus, *", 347.
Scopifer, k, 324.
Scopulatus, /", 348.
Scutatus, 274. ^', 330.
Scutellatus, 332. ^

Scutellifonnis, u\ 349.
Secundarius, i", 336.
Securiformis, h", 311.
Segmentum, 297.
Semicompletus, i. 67.
Semicoronatus, 354.
Semireconditus, A, 306.
Septiformis, h', 313.
Sepultus, c', 309. C, 330.
Sericeus, 284.
Serpentinus, /'", 340.

614

ORHMOLOaiCAL INDEX.

Serratusy 397. k, SSO.

SesquialteruS) V^^y 343*

Bessilis, 307. h, 314. C, 350.

Setaceus, k, 318.

Setarius, k, 324.

SetiformiSy e\ 31S. k, 318.

Sedgertis, k, 333.

Setosus, 276.

Setulosue, 876.

Sexan^iilus, 368.

Sigtnoideus, 268.

Signatura, 285.

Signatus, 385.

Simplex, d', 309. h, 318. k, S34.

V", 340. r". 347.
Simulans, e^ 348.
Sinuato-undiil«tu8, 890.
Sinuatus, 396.
SmaragdinuSy 283.
Solidus, 859.
Sparsus, 313.
Spatulatus, 263.
Sphxricus, 264.
Sphserulatus, 274.
Spina, 300.
Spinigerus, c", 333.
Spinosus, d\ 310.
Spiralis, k, 318.
Splendens, 384.
Spong^ofius, 259.
Spurius, 297. i. 315.
SquamatiMy /", 336.
SquamoBus, 274.
Squarrosus^ 296.
Stomapus, 309.
Stramineus, 279.
StriatuSy 271.
Striga, 290.
Strigilatus, a'. 330.
Strigosus, 290.
Stupeus, 275.
Stupulosus, 276.
Subereus, 258.
Subocularis, k, 316.
Subulatus, h", 312. k, 322. c",

334.
Suctorius, c', 309.
Sulcatus, 271.
Sulphureus, 279.
Supercilium, 288.

Superimpositus, C, 350.
Superior, h, 314. k, 316. /", 385.
Suspensus, 300.
Sutura, 397.
Tabularis, ^, 332.
Tabulatus, f/, 849.
Tcctus,^', 331.
Telescopiformis, M\ 358.
Tensus, C, 350.
Tenuis, 260. k, 319.
Teres, 267.
Terminalis, 306.
Tesselatus^ 289.
Testaceus, 280.
Testudinarius, 286.
Tetraedrus, 866.
TetragOBUs, 2^6,
Tetrapterus, 343.
Tetrapus, 343.
Thoradformis, t', 331.
Tomentosus, 276.
Topazinu8» 283.
Torulosus, k, 325.
Trachelatus, Vy 328.
Tramosericeus, 284.
Transcurrens, v', 349.
Transversus, 298.
Trapezatus, 264.
Trapeziformis, 266.
Trapezoideus, 264.
Trapezoidiformis, 266.
Triangulus, 262.
Triarticulatus, k, 335.
Tricaudatus, /", 338.
Triedrus, 266.
Trifidus, 296.
Trigonus, 266.
Trim ems, B, 326.
Tripartitus, 296.
Triquetrus, 265.
Tritomesus, *"*, 343.
Truncatus, 295. c", 333.
Tuberculatus, 873.
Tuberculum, 373.
Tubulosus, 259. e, 312.
Tumidus,/", 336.
Turbinatus, 262.
Turbiniformis, 265.
Turritus, A, 306.
Umbilicatus, 270.

ORISMOLOOICAL INDEX.

615

Umbra, 385.
Umbraculatufl, A, 807.
Undnatus, k, 322. 1'", 341, 2>,

851.
Undosufl, 371.
Undulatus, 29 1, 293.
Unguiculatus, c', 309. d', 310. k,

322.
Un^uifonnis, c', 853.
Umcoiory 291.
Ustulatos, 289.
VaricosuSy 1'". 340.
Variola, 27a
Variolosus, 270.
VelutinuSy 276.
Venosus, 290.

Ventricosus, 260.
VermiculatuSy 27 1 .
Verriculay 277.
Verriculatus, 277.
Verruca, 273.
Verrucosus, 273.
Versatilis, 301. A, 806.
Versicolor, 292.
Verticalis, 298, 301. i, 315.
Vertidllatus, k, 324.
Vibradlis, 301.
Villosus, 275.
Violaceus, 280.
Viridis, 281.
Vitta, 290.
Vittatus, 290.

Hi.

INDEX

TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS NOTICED IN THIS

WORK.

i

{From the long period that the present work has been in hand, some
confiuion has taScen place with regard to the nomeDcIature of the ge-
nera mentioned in it; but the following Index it is hoped will enable
the reader in most instances to rectify it.]

CLASS I. Inseda.

Order I. Coleopterc^ iv. 368—-.

Abax, iv. 2S0.

Acilius (Dytiscut)yiu 251 ; iii. 305.

Adelium, iv. 496.

Msalus, m, 504.

Agathidium, ii. 23S.

Agra, iii. 527 ; iv. 496.

Agrostiphila, iii. 386 ; iv. 496.

AMs, in. 601.

Aleochara, ii. 232.

Alurnus, iii. 34 ; iv. 496.

Amblyterus, iii. 426.

Amphicoma, iii. 386.

AnisonyXy iii. 690.

Anisotoma, iiL 41.

Anobium (PHnus), L 36, 234, 386 ;

ii. 235, 386.
Anoplognathus, iii. 337 ; iv. 496.
Anthia, iii. 33.
Anthophagus, iii. 506.
Anthrenus {Byrrhu8)y i. 234; ii.

226; iii. 177.
Anthribus, iiL 318.
Aphodius, iv. 397, 478, 489, 554.
Apion, i. 176 ; iv. 487.
Apoderus, iii. 333, 412.
Apogonia, iv. 496.
Archon, iv. 446, note.
Areoda, iii. 692.
Asida, iv. 494.

Ateuchus, i. 252.

Atractocerus, ii. 348 ; iv. SSI,

Attagenus {Dermegtes), i. 2S1.

Attdabus, iv. 107.

Auchenia, ii. 391.

Bagous, iv. 69.

Bafaninus (Curctdio), i. 201; ii.

274 ; iii. 84.
Bembidium, iv. 312.
Blaps, ii. 242 ; iii. 344.
Blethisus, iv. 502.
Bolbocerus, iii. 329.
Bostrichus, i. 210.
Brachinus, ii.246; iv. 129.
Brachycerus, iii. 33.
Brachyrfainus, ii. 219.
Brentus, iii. 33, 709.
Bronchus, iv. 273.
Broscus, iv. 272.
Bruchus, i. 175.
Bryaxis, iv. 311.
Buprestis, L 233 ; iii. 33.
Byrrhus, ii. 234.
By turns, i. 194.
Calandra, i. 171, 298; iii. 33.
Callichroma (Cerambt/x), ii. 249 ;

iii. 523.
Callidium, i. 232 ; ii. 290.
Calopus, i. 233.
Colosoma, i. 269, 275 ; iv. 486.
Cantharis (Lytia), i. 51 S ; ii 227 ;

iv. 77, 491.

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS.

617

Carakis, i. S69 ; ii. 347 ; in. 33 ;

iv. 493, 5^8.
CarjMiIiniuSy ii. SO, note.
Cassida, fi. 261; iiL 601 .
CatascopuSy iv. 496.
Catheretes, i. 295.
Cebrio, iii. 519.
Cerambyx, iii. 545.
Cen^terus, iiL 514; iv. 496.
Cercyon, iv. 500.
Cerocoma, iii. 3 1 7.
Cetonia, iii. 344.
Chastophora (Geoiyuut), ii. 258.
Chasmodia, iii. 568 ; iv. 496.
Chilocorus, iv. 280.
Chiroscelis, iL 421.
Chlsenia, iii. 539 ; iv. 554.
Chlamys, iii. 525, 597.
Cboleva, iv. 553, note.
Choragus, ii. 315.
Chrysomela^ii. 245, 321 ; iii. 34.
Cicindela, i. 268 ; ii. 349 ; iv. 488.
CionuSy ii. 274 ; iv. 552.
Cistela, iii. 567.
Claviger, iii. 519.
Clerus^i. 271.
Clivina, ii. 365.
Clytrayi. 464; in. 332.
Clytus, ii. 391.
Cnodalon, iii. 5 1 4.
Coccinella, i. 262 ; ii. 9, 230.
CoUiuris, iii. 527 ; iv. 497.
Colymbetes, iii. 324.

CopriSy L 252 ; ii. 240; iV. 299,490.

Corticaria, i 225.
Oorynetes, i. 255,
Cossyphus, iii. 598.
CremastocheiluB, iii. 423*
Creophilus, iiL 493.
Crioceris, iL 391.
Cryptocephalus, iii. 525.
Cryptophagusy i. ^25 ; iiL 335,716.
Cryptorynchusy ii. 234 ; iii. 329.
Cupes, iii. 511 ; iv. 496.
Curculio^ iL 219.
Cychrus, iL 391.
Cymindis, iii. 691.
Cyphon, i. 87. ,
Cyphus^iv. 271.
Diuicilius, iii. 689.

DasyteSy iii. 690.
DennesteSy iiL 536.
Diaperisy iii. 310.
Ditoma, iii. 518.
Donacia, ii. 349 ; iiL 227.
Dorcadion, i. 232.
Dorcatoroa, iii. 519.
Doryphora, iv. 494.
DriluSy iv. 479 note, 508.
Dromia, iv. 295.
Drypta, iiL 689 ; iv. 697.
D3fiia8te8, ii. 240 ; iii. 33.
I^scuSy ii. 255, 295 ; iiL 33, 481 ;

iv. 254.
Elaphrus, iv. 501.
Elater, L 179; iL 317; iii. 556;

iv. 557.
Elephastomus, iv. 496.
Elmis, ii. 258.
Eiophorus^ iL 257, 364.
Enoplium, iii. 324.
Entunus, iii. 603.
Erotylus, iiL 568 ; iv. 496.
Eucblora, iii. 704.
Eumoipus, i. 202.
Eurhinus, iii. 325.
Eurychora, iiL 489 ; iv. 495.
Eurynotus, iii. 693.
Eutrachelus, iv. 497.
* Evoesthetus, iv. 503.
Feronia, iii. 336.
GaleIitl^ iv. 496.
Graleruca, iii. 690.
Geniates, iii. 423.
Genuchus, iii. 423.
Georyssus, ii. 258.
Geotrupes, i. 253 ; ii. 234, 475.
Gfibbinm, iii.513.
Glaphyras, iv. 495.
Gnatmuni, iii. 317.
GnathoceraCCe/onta), iii. 488, 569.
Gnoma, iii. 542.
Goliathus, iii. 33 ; iv. 499.
Graphiptenis, iv. 495.
Gymnopleurus, iii. 704 ; iv. 483.
Gyrinus, ii. 4, 241 ; iv. 56.
Haiiplus, in. 450.
Haltica,L 182, 186.
Harpalus, ii. 246.
Helseus, iii. 502 ; iv. 496.

618

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Helluo, iv. 496.

Helodes, iy. 500.

Helopg, iiL 567.

Heterocerus, iiL 399. .

Hexodon, iiL 446.

Hispay iiL 166.

Higter, ii. 227.

Hololepta, iii. 668.

Hoplia, iL 234.

Horia, iy. 491, 496.

Hydraena, ii. 364 ; iy. 522.

Hydrophilus, iL 295; iiL 33, 71.

Hydroporus, iy. 500.

Hylecoetus, iii. 317.

Hylessinusy i. 232.

Hylurgusy L 232.

Hypera, iii. 142, 215.

HyphydruSy iy. 500.

Imatiaium, ii. 261.

Labidus, iy. 496.

Lagria, iy. 276.

Lamia, iii. 34, 514.

Lamprima, iii. 681.

Lampyris, ii. 410; iy. 498.

Lan^uria, iii. 444.

Lebia, ii. 443.

Lema, ii. 260.

Leptura, iiL 301.

Lethnis, i. 202; iy. 499.

Liparus, iiL 232.

Lixus (Curculio)f L 1 48 ; iL 280.

Lomechusa, ii. 441 .

Lucanus, iL 227 ; iii. S3, 314.

Lyctus, i. 172 ; ii. 231.

Lyciis, iiL 517.

Lymexylon, i. 234.

Macraspis, iii. 442.

Macrocepbaliis, iii. si 9.

Macroplea, iy. S2S,

Macropus, iii. 332.

Maladiius, iii. 323, 539.

Manticora, iii. 33.

Megasoina, iiL 33, 311, note.

Melasis, iy. 306.

Meioe, L 162; ii. 250; iii. 163;

iy. 225, 492.
Melolontha, i. 177, 205; iy. 558.
Micropeplus, iii. 506.
Mimela, iii. 545 ; iy. 495.
Molorchus, ii. 348.

Moluris, m, 539.

Mordella, iiL 451.

Mycetophagus, i. £56, note.

Mylabns, i. 155 ; iy. 491.

Nebria, iii. 513.

Necrobia, iii. 683, note ; iy. 556.

Necrodes, iii. 540.

Necrophoms, L 350.

Necydaiis, ii. 348.

Nemognatha, iii. 317.

Nilion, iy. 496.

Nitidula, L 209.

Notenis, iiL 324.

Nothiophilus, iy. 274.

Notoxus, iiL 448.

Ocypus, iiL 439.

Odacantha, iii. 542.

Oedemera, iL 315.

Oenas, iiL 518, 676. .

Omalium, ii. 242.

Omophron, iy. 501.

Onitis, iii. 333, 337.

Onthophagus, iii. 3J0, 338; iy.490.

Onthophilus, iy. 272.

Opatrum, iy. 295.

Opilo, iii. 683, note.

Orchestes, ii. 314.

Oryctes, L 300; iy. 491.

Oxyporus, iy. 263.

Oxytelus, ii. 439 ; iii. 327 ; iy. 141.

Pachygaster (Curculio), i. 203.

Pachysoma, iii. 659.

Pxlobius, iy. 500.

Parnus, ii. 364.

Paropsis, iy. 496.

Ptoimachus, iii, 543.

Passalus, iii. 310.

Pausus, L 2S4;ii.42l.

Paxillus, iii. 446.

Pedinus, iy. 295.

Pelidnota, iiL 691.

Pelti8,iy. 136.

Phalacru9, iy. 503.

Phaleria, L 173.

Phanaeus, iii. 326, 337.

Phengodes, iiL 440.

Phileurus, iiL 390.

PhloiotribuA, i. 232.

Phobems, iii. 446.

Pbolidotus, iiL 315.

NOTICED IN THIS WOBK>

61§

Pimelia, ii. 250; iv. 502.

Platypus, iii. 518 j iv. 551.

Plectropus, iu. 660.

Poecilus, iv. 554.

Pogonopborus, iiL 441.

Prioccra, ii, »27.

Prionus, i. 233,- ii. 391; iii. 34;

iv. 484.
Psammodius, i. 253.
PselaphuSy ii. S07, note.
Psephus {Meloloniha), iii. 678.
Pterostichus, iii. 668.
Ptilinus, i. 234.
Ptinus, i. 238.
Pyrochroa, iv. 324.
Ramphus, ii. 314.
Rhagiam, iiL 143.
Rhina, iii. 4S2.
Bilinosimus, i. 233, note.
Rhipicera, iii. S20, 321 ; iv. 498.
Rhipiphorus, iii. 444.
Hutela, iv. 496.
Rhynchaenus, i. 453.
Rhjmchites, i. 196, 202.
Ryssonotus (Lticamu), iii. 667.
Sagra, iii. 483.
Saperda, iii. 332.
Sarrotrium, iii. 523.
Scaphidiuin, ii. 315.
Scarabaeus, i. 349 ; iii. 837.
Scarites, ii. 365.
Scaurus, iii. 489.
Scbizorbina {Cetoma)y iii. 479 ; iv.

496.
Scolytus, iii. 444.
Scotinus, iv. 496.
Serica, iii. 691.
Serropalpus, iv. 200.
Siagonium, iii. 315.
Silpba, ii. 242.
Sinodendrum, L 229.
Spbseridiam, iiL 674 ; iv. 394.
Spbeniscus, iii. 567.
Spbodms, iii. 332.
Staphylinus, ii. 236, 244 ; iii. 33.
Stenoconis, iii. 516.
Stenus, iii. 448.
Stomis, iii. 454.
Tacbinus, i. 252.
Tacbyporus, L 252.

Tanyspbynis, iv. 69*

Telepborus, ii. 312.

Tenebrio, i. 134; iii. 33.

Tetraonyx, iv. 496.

Tetratoma, iii. 518.

Tetraopes (7V/rop«), iii, 498.

Tbanasimus, iii. 683, note.

TiUus, iii. 448.

Timarcba, iii. 99.

Tomicus (BostrichtuF,), i. 210.

Trechus, iv. 312.

Trichius, iii. 386.

Tricbopteiyx, iii. 40, note.

Trogo8ita»i. 171.

Trox, L 255; ii. 240, 391.

Ordee II. Strepsiptera, iv. 369«

Stylops, L 267 ; ii. 327.
Xenos, i. 267 ; ii. 327.

Order III. Dermaptera, iv. S70.

Forficula, ii. 350; iii. 341.
Labia (Forficula), iv. 514.
Labidura {Farfi{nda), ii. 237; iiL
34.

Order IV. Orthoptera, iv. 371.

Acheta {GrifUus^ iii. 679, 688.
Acrida, iii. 35; iv. 152,
Acridium, ii. 328.
Blatta, L 239 ; iL 328 ; iii. 34.
Conocepbala {Conocepkalut\ vL

609, 679.
Empusa, iii. 668.
Gryllot^dpa, iL 366, 398 ; iii. 34.
Gryllus {Acheta)^ L 239 ; iiL 674

iv. 557.
Locusta, i. 213 ; ii. 15 ; iii. 35, 70.
Mantis, i. 275 ; ii. 221, 328 ; iii. 70;

iv. 557.
Mantispa, iL 351.
Myrmecophilus, iii. 41.
Pbanma, ii. 220, 328 ; iii. 34.
Phyllium, iii. 668.
Pneumora, ii. 395; iii. 340.
Proscopia, iv. 308.
Pteropbylla {LocuUa F.), iii. 609.
Scapbura, iv. 132.
Tridactylus, iiL 679.
Truxalis, ii. 328.

620

INDEX TO THE GENERA OP INSECTS

Oeder V. yeuroptera, iv. 37 1 .

JEshna, ii. 295 ; iii; 128.
Agrion, iL 355 ; iii. 86, 128 ; iv. 58.
Anax, i. 273 ; iii. 36.
Ascalaphus, iii. 499; iv. 414.
Boretis, iv. 468.
Calepteiyx, Hi. 304,
Chauliodes, iv. 468.
Cordulia, iii. 128.
Corydalis, iii, 36 ; iv. 496.
Ephemera, i. 279 j ii. 5; iv. 57,

558.
Hcmerobius, i. 261 ; il 243, 259.
Libellula, ii. 295 ; iii. 127.
Myrmeleon, i. 427 j iii. 36.
Osmylus, iii. 631.
Panor|)S^ i. 271 ; ii. 256.
Perla, iii. 508 ; iv. 558.
Psocus, ii. 383.
R«)hidia, ii. 310.
Sidis (Semhlis), ii. 294.
Termes, i. 241, 304, 511 ; ii. 31;

iv. 558.

ObderAHI. Hynienoptera, iv. 373.

Acanthopus, iii. 680.

Alysia, iv. 215.

Ammophila, i. 344.

Andrena, ii. 243.

Anthidiiim, i. 437.

Anthophora, iii. 304.

Apis, i. 375, 484; ii. 125, note.

Atta {Formca\ i. 207 ; ii. 101.

Aulacus, iii. 633.

Bembex, i. 259 ; ii. 234.

Bombus, i. 377, 502.

Bracon, iii. 633.

Cephus {Tracheltu), iii. 518; iv.

503.
Centris, iii. 306.
Ceratina, L 440.
Cerceris, iii! 711.
Clmlcis, ii* 315, 356.
Cheionus, iu, 320.
Chelostoma, iii. SI 8.
Chlorion, iii. 549.
Chrysis, i. 448 ; ii. 238.
Cimbex, ii. 327 ; iii. 676*
Codrus, iii. 632.
Coelioxys, iii. 338.

Colletes, i. 436.

Crabro, iL 243 ; iii. 334.

Crocisa, iii. 558.

Cryptocerus, iii. 525.

Cryptus, iii. 595.

Ctenoplectra, iii. 681.

Cyclostoma, iii. 36.

Cynips, i. 295, 315, 448; ii. 281.

Dasyga, iii. 484.

Dasypoda, iii. 306.

Di^ria, iii. 721.

Dinetus, iii. 318.

Doryius, iii. 508.

Epicharis, iii. 306.

Epipone, i. 346.

Eucera, iii. 319.

Euglossa, iii. 181, 335.

Eulophus, iii. 321.

Evania, iii. 533, 580, note; iv.

216,558.
Foenus, iv. 211.
Formica, i. 182, 479; ii. 50; iv.

558.
Halictus, iii. 307.
Heriades, ii. 262.
Hylaeiis (ProsopU F.), iii. 483, 633.
Hylotoma, iii. 321.
Ichneumon, i. 266, note.
Larra, iii. 507.
Leucospis, iL 315.
Lophyrus, iii. 74.
Lyda, iii. 140.
Lyrops, iii. 507.
Masaris, iv. 495.
Megachile, i. 441.
Melecta, iii. 306.
Melipona, iv. 497.
Mellmus, L 259. .
Misocampus, ii. 223.
Mutilla, iL 255, 392.
Myrmecodes, iii. 480.
Myrmica, ii. 69, 96.
Nomada^ ii. 262.
Odynerus, i. 447.
Omalus, iii. 632.
Ophion, iiL 711 ; iv. 213.
Osmia» iiL 304.
Oxybelus, iiL 508. .
Panurgus, iv. 502.
Pamopes, i. 259 ; ii. 233.

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

en

Pelecinus, iii. SS4.

Pelopeus, iii. 662.

Pepsis, iii. 508.

Perga, iii. 521.

Philanthus, i. 163.

Pimpla, iii. 704 ; iv. 210.

Podalirius, iii. 660.

Polistes, i?. 558.

Pompilus, i. 344 ; iii 36.

Ponera, iu. 485.

Proctotnipes, i. 266.

Psilus, ii. 356.

Pteronus (Pierygopterus), ii. 248 ;

iii. 140, 322.
Sapyga, iv. 505.
Saropoda, iii. 681.
Scolia, it 229 ; iii. 36.
Sirex, i. 209, 234.
Sphecodes, iii. 314.
Sphex, iii 662.
Stelis, iv. 291.
Stigmus, iii. 306.
Stilbun], iii. 563.
Synagris, iii. 315.
Svstropha^ iii. 318.
Tenthredo, L 196 ; ii. 10, 245, 251.
Thynnus, iv. 496.
Tiphia, iii. 640.
Tngona, i. 328 ; iv. 497.
Trypoxylon, iv. 505.
Vespa, i. 371, 505 ; ii. 107.
Xiphydria, iii. 551.
Xylocopa, i. 438 ; iii. 36, 336 ; iv.

489.

Obder VII. Hemipteray iv. 376.

Acanthia {Coreiu)^ iii. 615.

Achilus, iv. 496.

Aleyrodes, iii. 261.

Alydus, iii. 615.

Aphis, i. 174, 198, 323, 454; ii.

88.
Aradus, iii. 320.
Belostoma, iii. 35, 525, 574.
Capsus, iii. 507.
Centrotus, ii. 225; iii. 537.
Cercopis {Cicada)^ ii. 228, 315.
Chernies, ii. 316.
Cicada {Tettig(mia F.), i. 204 ; ii.

302, 402 ; ill. 35 ; iv. 493.

Ciroex, i. 106, 162.

Cixius, iii. 520.

Coccus, i. 193, 203, 316; iii. 77.

Coreus, ii. 378.

Cydnus, iii. 613.

Darnis, iii. 557.

Delphax, iv. 316.

Dorthesia, iii. 183, 347.

Edessa, iii. 480.

¥\9XSi{C%cada),\. 325.

Fulgora, iii. 35.

Galgulus, iii. 520.

Gerris, i. 272.

Hydrometra, i. 272.

Jassus, iii. 508.

Ledra, iiL 537.

Lygaeus, ii. 316; iii. 35, 673.

Membracis, iiL 537.

Miris, iii. 507.

Nabis, iii. 667.

Naucoris, i. 272 ; iii. 83.

Nepa, i. 272 ; iii. 94.

Notonecta, i. 108, 272.

Otiocerus {Cobax), iii. 479, 510.

Pentatoma, iii. 88, 101.

Plea, iii. 616.

Psylla, iii. 465.

Ranatra, i. 272 ; iii. 94.

Reduvius, i. 108, 272 ; ii. 258^ 297.

Rhinuchus (Lygems F.), iii. ^15,

714.
Salda, iv. 502.
Scutellera (TetyraF.), ii. 250; iii,

506.
Sigara, iii. 170.
Tetyra,.iv. 487.
Thrips, iii. 163.
Tingis, i. 453 ; ii. 222.
Velia, i. 272.
Xipho8toina, iii. ^84.
Zelus, iii. 527.

Order VIII. Trichoptera, iv. 378.

Phr|rganea,i.467; ii. 220,264, 304;
iii. 68 ; iv. 558.

Order IX. Lepidoptera, iv. 786*

Agarista, iii. 679.

Aglossa, (Crambut), 1.237, iiL 156,
note; iv. 880!

623

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Alucita, iii. 335.
Apatura, iv, 500, 517.
Apoda, ii. 280 ; iii. 140.
ArctisiilBombt/x), i. 30, 476; ii, 226,

253 ; iii, 74,
Argynnis, iii. 179.
Attacus, {B(mbyx\ i. 332 ; ii. 239;

iii. 36, 321.
Bombyx, i. 476.
Botys, iv. 54.
Calfimorpha, iii. 194.
Castnia, iii. 507, 647 ; iv. 496.
Cerura (Bombyx), ii. 251 ; iii. 150.
Clostera, iiL 261.
Colias, iii. 252.

Cossus, i. 209; ii. 301 ; iii. 223.
Danaus, iii. 147.
Endromis, iii. 100.
Erebus, iii. 36.
Erioj^aster, iii. 175.
Ermmea, iii. 123.
Erycina, iii. 164.
Galleria, iii. 638.
Gastrophaca (Bombi/jc), ii. 222;

iii. 36, 99.
Geometra, ii. 236, 292.
Heliconia» iii. 630; iv.496.
Hemigeometra (iSToc/iMz), iii. 139;

iv. 513.
Hepialus, i. 182; iiL 220.
HermiDia, iii. 324.
Hesperia, ii. 254; iv. 39.
Hipparchia, iii. 84, 97.
Hypogymna iBoniyx), ii. 298; iii.

74.
Laria, iiL 176.
Ludoc&mp^ (Bombyx\ L 130; iL

22; iii. 80.
Limenitis, iii. 115.
Lithosia, iiL 157.
Lycsena, iii. 1 64.
Macroglossum, iii. 571.
Melit8ea,iiL 114, 182.
Morpho, iiL 35.

Noctua, i. 188, 190; ii. 220, 291.
Notodonta (Bombyx), ii. 237 ; iii.

152.
Nudaria, iiL 647.
Nycterobius, i. 304, 456.
Nymphalis, iiL 115, 182.

Odenesig, iii. 638.

Oecophora {Tinea), i. 455.

Papilio, ii. 244, 354; iii. 35,148i

Pamassius, iii. 149; iv. 484.

Phalaena, i. 195, 327.

Pieris, iii. 189, 195 ; iv. 200.

Platypterix, iii. 260.

PoDtia (Pierii), iii. 79, 98, &c.

Procris, i. 203.

Psyche {FumeaHaw.)^A64; iv. 1 59.

Pterodactyius, iv. 337.

Pterophorusy iii. 648.

Pyralis, L 172; iL 291 ; iii. 231.

Saturnia, ii. 251.

Satyms, iii. 104, 115.

Sesia, L 195.

Smerinthus, iiL 186.

Sphinx, L 163; iii. 36.

Stauropas (Bombyx), ii. 254.

Tinea, i. 230, 465.

Tortrix, L 457, 198.

Vanessa, iii. 84, 179.

Urania, iii. 179.

Zygaena, ii. 290.

Order X. IHptera, iv. 381.

Anthrax, iii. 645.

Asilus, L 271 ; iL 361.

Beris, iiL 67, 337.

Bibio (HirUea), L 192; ii. 361;

iv. 558.
Bombylius, iL 383.
Ceddomyia, L 170, 433; iv. 219.
Ceria, iv. 317.
Ceroplatus, iv. 131.
Ghironomus, iii. 143, 288; Iv. 558.
Conops, iii. 713.
Coretnra, iii. ill; iv. 66,
Ctenophon (Ctenocera),h SS6; iii.

247, 449.
Culex, L 1 12 ; iv. 483.
Dilophus, iii. 370.
Dioctria, L 271.
Diopds, iii. 501.
Dohchopus, iv. 55.
Echinomyia, iii. 37.
Elophilus, iii. 137; iv. 52.
Empis. iii. 337 ; iv. 568.
EristaHs, L 192.
Eumerus, iv. 203.

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

629

Hsematopota, iii. 326.

Heptatoma, iii. 326.

Hippobosca, i. 147; ii.310.

Leptis (RAagio), i. 433 ; iv. 379.

Limonia, iii. 680.

Mosillus, i. 168.

Musca,!. 147>172, 254.

Myopa, iii. 480.

Nemotelus, iii. 479.

Nycteribia, ii. 3 1 1 ..

(Estrus, i, 136, 146, 149, 158.

Oinopota, i. 227.

Omithorayia, i. Ill ; ii. 310.

Oscinis, i. 201 ; iv. 487.

Pangonia, i. 1 52.

Phasia, iv. 291.

Psychoda (HirUea), iii. 634.

Rhagio, L 151.

Rhingia, iii. 479.

Scaeva, ii. 280.

Scatophaga, i. 190, 271; iii. 96.

Sciara, iii. 478.

Seioptera, ii. 305.

Sepedon, iii. 259.

Sicus, iii. 667.

Simulium, i. 1 28 ; iv. 483.

Stomoxys,L 110, 145.

Stratyomis, ii. 230, 285 ; iv. 54.

Svrpnus, i. 262; ii. 27 4^

Tabanus, i. 110, 145; iii. 37.

Tanypus, ii. 278.

Tephntis, i. 196, 453; ii. 283.

Thereva, iii. 621.

Tipula, i. 180, 294; ii. 359.

Trichocera, ii. 443.

Tyrophaga(7^i^Art^),ii.283; iv.

79.
Voliicella, i. 264 ; ii. 223.
Xylophagus, iii. 645.

Oboer XI. Aphamptera^ iv. 382.
Pulex, i. 100.

Ordee XII. Aptera, iv. 383.

Acanis, i. 96, 226.
Astoma, liL 107, 654.
Atax, iL 294; iii. 91.
Caris, iii. 107.
Chelifer, iv. 385.
Chionea, ii. 446.

Craspedosoma, iii. 494.

Eylais, iv. 501.

Gamroa$ii8 (Acarus), i. 201; ii.

306, 311; iv. 227.
Geophilus (Scolopendra), i. 256;

iii. 499; iv. 19.
Glomeris, iii. 49.4.
Gonyleptes, iii. 670, 686.
Hydracbna, iii. 83 ; iv. 228.
lulus, ii. 308; iii. 37; iv. 142.
Ixodes {Acarm\ i. 105, 145, 161 ;

ii. 308.
Lepisma, ii. 320; iii. 161.
Leptus {Acarus), i. 103.
Limnochares, iv. 501.
Lithobius {Scolopendra)^ iii. 494.
Machilis, ii. 320; iii. 23, 715.
Melittophagus, i. 162.
Melophagus, i. 156.
Nirmus {Ricinus\ iii. 104, 321.
Nymphon, i. 165.
Obsidium, iv. 385.
Ocypete, iii. 107, 654.
Pediculus, i. 83.
Phalangium, ii. 332 ; iii. 686.
Podura, ii. 319; iii. 715.
Pollyxenus, iii. 107.
Polydesmus, i. 184.
Sarcoptes {Acarus)^ i. 91.
Scolopendra, L 125; iii. 37; iv.

558.
Scutigera, iii. 22, 581 ; iv. 48.
Sminthurus, ii. 319; iii. 715.
Trorobidium, i. 323.
Uropoda» iii. 90 ; iv. 227.

CLASS. Arachnida, iv. 386.

Aranea, i. 127.
Argyroneta {Aranea), i. 473.
Ciubiona, iii. 491.
Dolomeda, iii. 493, note.
Drassus, iii. 491.
Dysdera, iii. 490.
Epeira, iii. 71.
Eresus, iii. 493, note.
Galeodes {Solpuga F.), i. 125;
U1. 23.

Latrodectes, iii. 493, note.
Lvcosa, L 126; iii. 71, 491.
Myga]e(ilrafi^a),i. 359,471 ; iii. 37.

624

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS.

Nynus, iiL 493, note.
Pnolcus, lii. 493, note.
Phrynus, iii. 684 ; iv. S87.
Salticus, it. si 6.

Scorpio, i. 134, 276; iii. 37, 718.
Scytotles, iii. 490.
Segestria, iii. 490. ,
Sparasus, iii. 493, note.
Sphasus, iii. 491.
Storena, iii. 493, note.
Tetragnatha, iii. 493, note.
Thelyphonus, iii. 684, 704, 718;

iv. 387.
Thomisus, iii. 71.

Foreign Provincial Names,

Alkermes, i. 317.
Bamburos, i. 328.
Bemarkelse-maisk, i. 33.
Bete rouge, i. 105.
Bete de la Vierge, i. 263.
Blaazops, ii. 395.
Brulot, i. 110.
Brumm-Vogel, ii. 378.
Cadelle,i. 171; iii. 142.
Cafafi, i. 128, note.
Cancrelas, i. 260.
Cantaride de' Gigli, i. 260.
Chenille, i. 184.
Cheveux de Florence, i. 284.
Chigoe, i. 49, 102.
Ciron des paupieres, i. 88.
Coddia, i. 122.
Comegen, i. 238.
Coya, or Coyba, i. 132.
Cucuij, ii. 413.

Cupia, i. 136.

Dibben Fashook, i. 312, note.

Fils de la Vierge, ii. 334.

Gards-drag, iL 275.

Grillo, iL 401.

Grugru, i. 296

Heerwurm, ii. 8.

Jiggers, i. 102.

KSerlac, i. 260.

Kerroes, i. 317.

Lierman, ii. 403.

Macauco, i. 300.

Mantas blancas, i. 128.

Mosquito, i. 112.

Mousdque, i. 112, note.

Moutac, i. 300.

Nigua, i. 102.

Pe-la, i. 325.

Pique, i. 102.

Sacktrager, i. 464 ; iii 257.

Skarnbosse, i. 33.

Stamm-raupe, ii. 433.

Tama-jours^ i. 306.

Telgnes a fourreau a manteau, i.

462.

Tendaraman, L 1 27.
Tola, oj; Thola, i. 316.
Torbist, i. 33.
Tsalt-salya, i. 152.
Tungua, i. 102.
Vaches a Dieu, i. 263.
Vinaigrier, i. 67.
Voupristi, i. 155*
Wurm-trockniss, L 210.
Zancudo, i. 112, note.
Zimb, i. 152, note; ii. 380.

ENGLISH INDEX.

AbiHnenee of insects, i. S99.

Acariasis, disease so called, i. 86 ;
iv. 227, 572.

Acidy acetic, iv. IS 8.

— - bombic, iv. 139.

— formic, iv. 138.

• malic, iv. 138.

JEliaUy iv. 425.

Aeroicepsy, iv. 240, 245.

Affinity f iv. 357 : object of, 401.

Air-reservoirt, iv. 54, 1 84.

Aldrofxmduiy iv. 428.

Analogies in nature, kinds of, iv.
411 : object of, 408 : scale of,
in insects, 412.

Analogy, argument from, iv. 237.

Anafysit (chemical) of insect sub-
stance, iii. 395 ; iv. 572.

Anbury f i. 453.

Animals, classifications of, iii. 2.

■ annulose, iii. IS; iv. 426.

Ani^ black, i. 483; ii. 48 : fire, i.
122: ^en, 122: hill or horse,
SSI; li. 48, 97: jet, 48, 98:
mason, 96 : miner, 80 : parasol,
i. 207, 479 : red, ii. 48, 69 : ru-
fescent,76: sanguine, 81: sugar,
i. 182: turf, ii. 93: visitation, i.
123, 270: yellow, ii. 48, 90.

Anteater, i. 280.

Anientue, whether analogous to
ears, iv. 240.

AniUon, i. 428.

Anis, love of their young, i. 362 :
nests, 479: swarms, ii. 51: lan-
guage, 62: wars, 69: slaves,
75: milch-cattle or Aphides, 88:
emigrations, 91: recruits, 93:
roads, 97: strength, 100: di-

versions, 103: diseases of, iv.
20.

Ants (white) ravages of, i. 841:
nests, 511: history, ii. 31: colo-
nies, 34 : number of eggs, 36 :
soldiers, 40 : sounds o^ 42.

Aphides, See Plant4ice*

Apparatus for taking and destroy-
ing insects, iv. 513.

Apple, attacked by insects, L 197.

Apricots, attacked by insects, i.
800.

Aristotle, system of animals, iii. 3 :
of insects, iv. 423.

Armour (defensive) of insects, ii.
225.

Arms, fore legs why so called, iii.
546.

Articulations of legs, iii. eSS, 664,
670, 682.

Artifices (defensive) of insects, ii.
257.

Aspect (defensive) of insects, ii.

224.

Attitudes (defenave) of insects, ii.

232.
Aurelia, i. 66.
Barley, destroyed by insects, i.

172.

Beans and Peas, destroyed by in-
sects, i. 173.

Bee, carpenter, i. 488: leaf-cutter,
35, 192, 444: mason, 441: >
poppy, 443. ^^ ^

Bees, (hive) affection for y^r
young, i. 375 : combs, 4q<: fa-
bles respecting, ii. 122: females,
125: mrvae of workers, how
turned tx> females, 129 : wdght

TOL. IV.

2 s

626

ENGLISH INDEX.

and bulk, 129: jealousy and
battle8 of the female or queen,
142 : her appearance how
retarded, 146 : homage paid
her, 151 : effects produced by
the loss of her^ 153: sound
emitted by her, 88 7 : fecun-
dation, 172; iv. 158: swarms,
ii. 161 : males, number of, 171 :
slaughter of, 1 73 : workers,
tongue of, 177: wax-pockets,
178 : collection of honey and
pollen^ 178: excursions, 187:
' scouts, 1 894 yentiliation of their
hive, 198^. latiguage^ 201 : an-
ger and battles, 202, 207 : ene-
mies, i. 1 62 ; iL 209 : tempe-
rature, 212, 446; iv. 77: modi-
. iications of th^ instinct, ii. 48 1 .
degree of intellect, 495, 513: iv.
H2i diseases, 204 : kinds of^.328.

Beetle, pertinacity of one, ii. 235:
asparagus, iv. 104: bacon, i.
.225: bloody-nose, ii. 247, 821 :
burying, i. 351 ; iv. 254. dark-
ling, ii. 242 : death-watch, i. 36 ;
ii. 385: lily, 260: meal-worm,
i. 224; iv.. 104: oil, ii. 250:
poplar, 245 : rhinoceros, iv. II:
turnip, i. 185: vine, 202; iv.
499.

JBeetleSf blister^ i. 312; ii. 227:
bombardier, 246; iv. 129, 143:
Capricorn, i. 252, 298.; iL 391 :
carnivorous, iv. 131: carrion, ii.
242: dung or pill, i. 349; ii.
234, 257 ; ill. 442, 456: . elastic,
ii. 317: herbivorous,. iv. 132:
knot-grass, J 63: lamellicorn, iii.
309,436: petalocerous, 163,168,
446; .iv. 398: predaceous, i.
268; ii. 321; iv..392,408: rove,
ii.- '236, .244, 306: stag, 224,
.227; iv. 189: tiger, iii. 152:
timber and labynnth, i. 210,
232, 454; ii. 235: water, 363;
iii. 123, 481 ; iv. 254.

BUe of insects, iv. 103.

Bfood, showers of, caused by moths,
i. 35 : of insects, iv. 84, 92.

Boatman (water), i. 272.

Bonnet, iv. 444.

Book-crab, iv. 228.

Books, attacked by insects, i. 236.

Boxes (store), described, iv. 254.

— — •' breeding, iv. 540.

Brain, Acarus round in, i. 140. .

Bttg, bed, i. 107: chintz, 170:
harvest, 103: red, 184: water,
ii. 364 : wheel, i. 108.

Btigs, their scent, ii. 242.

Buprestis of the ancients, what,
1. 154.

Butcher Bird, i. 284.

BiUterJlies, blues, iii. 651 : c<^
pers, 652:. fritillaries, 253:
skippers, ii. 305: Trojans and
Grecians, iii. .305 : mode in
which their caterpillars suspend
themselves when about to as-
sume the pupa, 207.

Butterfly, admiral, iii. 64, 114:
Adon]s,i. 41 ; iii. 651 : brimstone,
252: cabbsige, L 188; ii. 11;
iv. 24, 281 : Glanville fritillary,
iii 114: hawthorn, 98: large
skipper, ii. 305: mountain, iii.
149: nettle, 253: orange-tip,
254: painted lady, 261 : pea-
cock, i. 9; iii. 214: purple em-
peror or high-flieTy iv. ,415:. sil-
ver-washed fritillary, iii, 253:
swallow-tail, ii. 224: tortoise-
shell, iii. 1 10.

Cabbage tribe, insect assailants of,
i. 188. . ^ ...

Cabinet, directions for making, iv.
542.

Case or Caddis worms, i. 468 ; ii.
.264.

Camphor, how to be used, iv. 545*

Carrots and Parsnips, injured by
a centipede, i. 18Q.

Catching insects, directions for, iv.

- 515.

Caterpillars, diseases of, iv. 206 :
how to preserve, 538 : surveyor?,
attitudes of, ii. 236.

Cattle, insects, that attack, i. 148.

Canl of insects, iv. 93.

ENGLISH INI>EX.

e^T

Centipedes, i. 123, 256, 308.
Chabner, eulogium of, iv, 179.
Chafer^ carrion, ii. 391 : cock, i.

177, 205; ii. 377: dung, 234,

249, 857; fern, 5: rose, 321:

tree, 234.
Cheese maggot, i. 226; ii. 283:

mite, 229, 332.
(^lerrtfy iQsects that attack> i. 195.
Chestnut, insects that attack, i.

201.
Chrysalis, i. 65,
Cicada^ male, soimd produced by,

and its 'apparatus,:n. 402, 405.
Greulatiem, different modes of in

the animal kingdom, \v. 81 :

vhether any in insects, 85.
Clairville^fi system, iv. 461.
Classes of anriulose animals, iii. 1 6 ;

iv. 365; osculant, iii. 14.
Climates, insect, iv. 482.
Clocks or DorSf ii. 310.
Clover-seed destroyed by a wee-
vil, i. l76.
Cochineal, i. 318.
Cockroach, L 226, 239.
Cocoon^ ir 68, 462; iii. 214.
Collar of certain insects, whether

the analogue of the prothorax,

iii. 548.
Collier^ plant-louse of the bean,

i. 175.
Colours (brilliant), use of in insects,

ii. 224.
Commosis, what? ii. 485.
Concealment, modes of in insects,

ii* 257.
Correlation, iv. 357.
Cossus, Pliny's, i. 299.
€b^/on, insects that injure, i. 184.
Creation, works of, have a double

object, iv. 401.
Crepuscular insects, iv. 512.
Cricket, field, ii. 397; iv. 104:
• house, i. 240; ii. 396: Indian,
. i. 240: mole, ii. 366, 598.
Cr4)p o£ hasects, iv. 106, 109, ill.
Cuckow, bee, i. 287.
Oucwmlbers, fecundated by bees,
i. 295.

Cuptdei, iv. 172, 183.

Curranty insects that attack, i. 194.

Cuvier*S system, iv. 462.

Dances of insects, ii. 5, 372.

DecUh'tvateh, i. 36 ; ii. 385.

Deer infested by insects, i. 158.

De Geer (Baron), system of, iv.
442.

Developments -of plants and ani-
mals, iii. 57.

Digger (entomological) described,
iv. 516.

Dimerotis insects, iii. 685.

Diptera, three descriptions of, ii.
360.

Diseases of insects : — wounds, iv.
198 : internal diseases, 201, 571 :
parasitic, 207^ 572.

— - — caused by lice, i. 83 : by
mites, 87 : by larvae, 98, 134.

Dissection of insects, modes of, iv.
194.

Distribution of insects :— numeric
cal, iv. 476 : topographical, 482 :
local, 498. '

Diurnal insects, iv. 512.

Dogs, insects infesting, i. 161.

Dors, ii. 219, 310 : iii. 332.

Dra^ont flying, wings represent
nud-legs of insects, iii. 593 ; iv.
418.

Dragofirflies, devourers of insects,
i. 273 : remarkable apparatus of
larva, &c., iii. 125.

Drone, or male bee, ii. 171.

Drum of the cicada, ii. 405: of
grasshoppers, 399.

Dyes afforded by insects, i. 315.

Earwigs, common, i. 358: giant,
ii. 237 : lesser, iv. 514.

Education, effects of on ants and

. other insects, ii. 87; iv. 22. .

E^s of insects, how fecundated,
iv. 158 : e&clusion, iii. 66 : situ-
ation, 70 : substance, 86 : num-
ber, 88: size, 89: growth, 91:
shape, 93 : scidplture, 97 : co-
lour, 99 : period of hatching ac-
celerated by artificial means, iv.
^42: gestation, iii. 162: !have

2 s 2

bM

ENGLISH INDEX.

t

their parasites, iv. 91 S: tarious
modes' of depositing, 353.

Electricity affects gossamer web, iv.
131 : excites insects, 135, 246.

EfUomohgitt, not cruel, i. 53 : dress
proper for, iv. 525.

Entomology, instances of its utility,
L 234 : study of, value, 4 : uses
of a system of, 47.

Entozoa namatoidea^ a kind of in-
testinal worms, iv. 229.

EphemertB, history of, i. 271^: sin-
^lar gyrations of, ii. 369 : have

' an iimer pupa ease, iii. 296 : re-
spiratory organs, iv. 57 : used as
manure, i. 314.

Eraiy entomological x—of the an-
cients, iv. 420 1 of the revival of

* the science, 426 : of Swammer-

^ dam and Ray, 431 : of Linne,
436 : of Fabricius, 449 : of La-
treille, 454: of MacLeay, 465.

Evil (seeming), uses of, i. 247.

Excrement of insects, iv. 119: lar-
vae of wasps, bees,&c. have none,

102.

Eyes of insects :— simple, iii. 490 :
conglomerate, 493 : compound,
494: structuife of, 495: num-
lier, 498: situation, 500: figure,
501.

Fabricius, system of, iv. 451.

Fishes attacked by an insect, i. 1 65.

Flea, i. 100: leap of, ii. 315:
strength oT, iv. 188.

Flies, singular disease of, iv. 202,
571.

Fldwers, insects that devour,i. 192.

Fiidd in pseudo-cardia of insects,
iv. 84, 89, note.

Jpyu, cauliflower, i. 108: chamae-
leon, iii. 99 ; iv. 54 : cheese, ii.

. 283 : crane, ii. S67 ; iv. 1 57 : eye,
i 130 : fire, i. 314 ; ii. 427 : flesh
or carrion, ii. 276, 361 : forest,
i 147; ii.SlO: gall, i. 315,448;
iv. 156: Hessian, i. 50, 169:
horse, i. 109, 145; ii; 472, note :
house, i. 129; ii. 362: lace-
winged, ill 94 ; May, i. 279 ; iii.

839, S95, 305: onibn, i. 190:
sand or burning, i. 110: scor-
pion, ii. 2a, 56 : snake, iL 310,
527 : swallow,i. ill: wheat, 168.

Food, insects that attack, L 224 :
reservoir, iv. 98.

Forceps described, iv. 520.

Forest-trees, insects attack, L 20S.

Frog-hopper (froth), leaps of« ii.
315.

Fungi, parasitic on insects, iv. 207.

Gad-fiy, deer and reindeer, i. 1 5S :
horse, 146 : ox, 148 : man, 136:
rabbit, 165: sheep, 157.

— — , has dght tracheae, iv. 65.

GaUrnuU,\, 315,448.

Garments, insects that attack, L
229.

Gecko (lizard), ii 325.

Geofmetfirs or surveyors, a kind of
cateqiillar, ii. 292; iv. 188.

Gesner, iv. 429.

Gizzard of insects, iv. 99.

Gloiv-^vorm, common, ii. 410; it.
143: Italian, ii. 425.

Gnat, agaric, ii. 7 : common, L
112; ii. 285; iii. 81: gall, i.
208, 453: horse, 147: wheat,
i. 28, 170: Mvlnter, iL 443.

Goliath beetles belt the. globe, iv.
493. ^ '

Gooseberry, insects that attack, i.
195.

Gossamer webs, ii. 334.

Gould (Rev. W.), die historian of
English ants, ii. 48.
I GrasSt insects that attack, i. 1 77.
I Grasshopper, ii. 222, 398: large
green, i. 150; iv. 230.

Gray (Mr.) characters of Linne's
orders and genera of insects In
Latin verse, iv. 446.

Groups o£wamiR\ kingdom, iv. 360:
of insects, 390 : characters of,
391: scale of, 393: composition
oC 397: how to be investigated,
548 : predominant, 488 : dcHni-
nant, 490: sub-dominknt, 492:
qiiiesceiit, 493: endemial, 494.

Gyrations of insects, ii. 369.

ENeUftH liiDlS.X»

629

Habit, w^at,iv. 551.

Hahitaiiont of solitary insects, i.
435; of gregarious insects, 446.

— — -— curious ones of Tinei-
ddp, I 457.

Harvest-mariy iv. 114.

Hawhnoihy bee, L 209: death's-
head, 34, 163 ; ii. 240, 266: hor-
net, i, 209: humming-bird, ii.
S69,3i33: privet, iii,266: spurge,
266.

Hawkmothty ii. 237.

Hearing of insects, organ of, iv.
240.

Heart of insects, what represented
by? iv. 84 : of Aracknida, 93.

Heat (vital) of insects, ii. 229 : iv.
77.

Herbage benefited by insects, i.
249.

Herod (Agrippa) destroyed by lar-
vae, i. 99.

Heteromerotu insects, iii. 683.

Honey, i. 327 : iv. 1 34.

— ^~ comb, i. 485.

dew, i. 203.

Hops, insects that attack, i. 182.

Hornet, i. 121, 2ir0.

Horse, insects that annoy, i. 1 45.

Hatfering of insects, ii. 368.

Humbie5fees, affection for their
young, i. 379 : mode of building
their nests, 502 : females, ii. 1 14 :
making cells, 117: males, 118:
workers, 118: hive-bees per-
suade them to yield to them
their honey, 1 19.^

Humeral piece of wings, iii. 619. ^

Humming of insects, ii. 379: iii.
552, note.

— in the air, ii. 377.

Hybernation of insects: — in theegg
state, ii. 432 : pupa state, 435 :
larva state, 436 : perfect state,
43 7 : places to which they resort
for, 440: cold not the only cause
of, 460.

Hymenoptera (gregarious) not sub-
ject to the attack of ichneumons,
ir.218.

Ichneumons, i. 264 ; iv. S09» f 22 :
how to extract from caterpillars,
541.

Ignis fatuus, ii. 422.

Imago, i. 68: motions — walking,
ii. 306 : running, 310 : jumping,
313 : climbing, 320 ; against gra-
vity, 323 : flying, 346 : swim-
ming, &c., 363 : burrowing, 365 :
development, iii. 291 : sexual di-
stinctions, 299: age, 343.

Insects, apparatus for killing, iv.
530 : annoyance of in what
respects beneficial, i. 250: be-
nencial in removing nuisances ;
as dung, 252: carrion, 253: in
keeping other insects, &c. within
due limits, 245, 259 : as afford*
ing food to mammalia, 277 ; to
reptiles, 278; to fishes, 279; to
birds, 284 ; to man, 298 : as ar-
ticles used in materia medica,
312: used for ornament, 314:
as afK>rding materials for dyeing,
ink, &c., 3 1 5 : as producing wa x.
324 ; honey, 327 ; silk, 329 :
cold and frost, effects upon, ii.
442, 451 : definition of, iii. 28 :
breeding them, directions for, iv.
538 : differ from Crustacea nnd
Arachnida, iii. 9 : education, ef-
fects of upon, ii. 87 : errors (vul-
gar) concerning, i. 33 : fossil, iv.
557 : food of— vegetable, i. 382;
animal, 384; both animal and
vegetable, 386 : sonie univbroiss^
387; others omnivorous, 388 :
times of feeding, 391 : organs by
which they feed, 393; iiu 4it :
stratagems employed' in prdcii-
ring food— by spiders, i. 404; by
the ant-lion, 427 : how best to
kiU them when captured^ iv.
523, 527 : imitations they exhi-
bit, i. 7; ii. 219: injuries they
occasion to man, i. 82 ; other
animals, 144 ; grain, 166 ; piilse,
173; herbage, 177; roots, 184;
kitchen-garden, 187; flower gar-
' den, 192; fruit, 1 93 ; plantationi^

6S0

ENGLISH INDEX*

. 205; to x>ttr food, S34; gar-
ments, 229 ; timber, 232 ; books
and cabinets, 256 : instincts, ex-
quisiteness of, ii. 473 ; number
of, 498; development of, 509:
instruction afforded by insects,
i. 1 6 : integuments of, iii. 394 :
intellect of, ii. 513; iv» 21, 32;
inventions they have anticipat-
ed, i. 14 : means by which tbey
defend themselves — passive, ii.
219; active, 232: luminous in-
sects, ii. 409 : noxious, how to
be destroyed, L 30: number,
(supposed) of insects existing,
iv. 477 : compared with that of
plants, 477 : of carnivorous and
phytiphagous insects, 479 : ovi-
parous and ovo-viviparous in-
sects, iii. 65 : representative dn-

. sects, iv. 496: rank of, 363:
strength of, iv. 188 : setting and
preparing for cabinet, 530: table
of relative size of, iii. 58 : trans-
formations of, i. 69.

Instinct, change of in a spider, iv.
1 98, note.

Itch, cause of, i. 90.

Jaws of insects, i. 394.

Jelli/, secreted by ditto, iv.:133.

Journal, entomological, how to
make, iv. 556.

Jurme, system of, iii. 622 ; iv. 470.

Kingdoms (animal and vegetable),
analogies between, iv. 361 : nu-
merical arrangement of, 400.

Knowledge, two avenues to, i. 24.

Jjac, an insect product, i. 321.

Lady-bird or Lady-cow, i. 262 j ii.
9, 230.

Lamarck,sy6temo£tmma\s,m, 15:
of insects, iv. 462.

Lantemrfiyf noise of, ii. 401 : whe-

' ther luminous, 418.

Larva of flies, i. 227 : stinging,
iii. 179 : rat-tailed, i. 253 : its
respiratory apparatus, iv. 53,

iMrviS, substance of,iii. 1 10: head,
112: eyes, 116: antennie, 118:
inouth, 119: trunk and abdo-

men, ISO: prol^, 134: d6f-
sal of gall-fly, ii. 281 : appen-
dages, iv. 145: ^ure, 156:
kinds of, 160 : primary forms
of, 162: clothing of, 174: co-
lour, 185 : food of, 189 : moult-
ing, 190 : growth of, 201 : how
they prepare to assume the pu-
pa, 204 : motions of apodous,
li. 273 : of pedate, ii. 286.

Latreille, system of, iv. 456.

Law (original) of the Creator, re-
gulates the develppments of in-
sects, iii. 56,

Leach, Dr., system of, iv. 468.

Legs of insects, parts of, iL 286 :
number of, 307; iiL 654: a<>-
quisition of, by myriapods, iii.
107, 159: antennae supply the
place of, ii. 313: relative loca-
tion of, 6582 motatdry, ii. S06.

Lepidoptera, parasites of^ iv. 21^1:
colours, iii. 649 : scales^ €46.

Linne, system of animids, iii. 5: of
insects, iv. 438.

Lint collected by anafit; L 312.

Lister, Dr; Muttn, iv. 434'.

Liver of Arachnida, iv. 103, 115;

Locusts, ravages of, i. 213 : foUott-
ed by famine and pesdleni36,
214: benefits produced hf^ 249 :
used as food, 300 : lec^ of, ii.
314 : female killed by the nude,
iii. 347.

Louse, bat, ii, 311: bird, i. 162;
iii^ 97: commcm, i^3 : p<iacock,
i. 162 : sheep, i. 156 : suj^, ii.
32© : wood, 233.
" '•• j leaf. See Plant-lomei

Luminositi/ of insects, causes of, ii.
428 ; iv. 444.

Lyonnet, anatomy of the cossus^ it.
445.

MoicLea^, W^. S., system of ani-
mals, ill. 1 2 : of Annulosa,iv. 465 :
of Mandibulata, 467 : of Petalo-
cera, 469: columns of analo-
gous Haustellata and Mandibu-
lata, 412.

Maggot of a fly, destructive to .the

SNG^IBH ItCMBXl

68i

sick, i. 13T: jompiog of chee^e-
Ay, L 336 ; ii. 263.

Magnus, Albertas, iv, 426.

Maize, insects that attack, i. 170,
173.

Males, two kinds o£? iv, les,

Man, centre of the ammai crea*
tion, iv. 360.

Marrow, spinal, iv. 8.

^o^fly» See Fly,

Meal'Uwrm, i. 224 ; iii. ] 42.

Medicine, insects* usefiil in, i. 312.

Metamorphoses of insects, ana-
logy between and the resiirreo*
lion, i. t2: use of, 77 : analo-
gies of those of plants and ani-
mals, iii. 57.

MetAody Yihat? iv. 355.

Microscopes, iv. 194, 557.

Migrations of idsects, ii. 7; iv. 5 1 1 :
of locusts, ii. 15.

Milk produced bjr insects, ii. 245,
251 ; iy. 46^.

Mite, autumnal, oif banrest bug, i.
97, 103: bee, 162: beetle, iv.
227 : cheese, i. 326, 307, 332 ;
iii. 107 : dysentery, L 89 : flour,

. 225: itch, 90: milk, 86: spi-
der, iv. 572 : spintiij^g or red spip
der, L 201 : strawberry, ii. 31 1 :
vegetating, i. 393; iv. 227.

Mites that infest collections of in-
sects, &c. how best destroyed,
iv. 545.

Mitys, what? ii. 265.

Mde^cricket, ravages of, i. 191 :
wonderful apparatutformtmng
its arms, iii. 586.
^ Monsmerous insects, iii. 686.

Moses, knowledge <ii insects^ L
22 ; iv. 420.

Mosquito, a SimuMum, i. lis. See

Moth, aquBtie, iv. 56: barley, i
172: brown-tail, 204: dotiies',

. 229, 4651 emperor, 334; ii.

. 251: figare-of-eight, i; 197:
fir, 131; n. 22: fur, i« 230:
ghost or hop, 182; iii. 66, 271,
306 : gold or yellow-^tsdl, i. 30 ;

ii. 2 1 ^ 255 : • gQdselMrr3i»aiid our-
rant) i. 195; iL 438: gross, > i.
176: great^at^ i. 209$<ii. 301 ;
iii. 119, 174, 2Q1» 3«2: Jaekey,
iii. 80 : lappet,, ii. 222 ; iii. 99'^
lobster, ii. ^$4i: locast,iiL.284:
■ prbcesidon, i. 130, 476; ii. 23:
prominent, iii. 152^ puss^ ii.
251, 253; iii. 283; iv« 213: srlk'-
worm, L 332; iii. 89, 276: ta^
pestry, i. 230: tiger, ii^ 226,
252; iii. 164 : wax, i. 368 : wolf,
i. 171 : wool, i. 230.

-— — , remarkable brush <A, iv^ 60 :
one resembling acaterpiUar, 159.

Moths, certain that construct ou^
rious habitations, i. 467. 465;
ii. 477 : minute^ how to betakw,
iv. 527.

*-*— — greasy, how to restore, iv.
139.

MotMng, seasons 0% ivi 511.

ikfoif^^^ iv. 429.

Moulting, See Insects.

Muscles of insects, origin of^iv. 168:
substance of, 168: shape, 170:
colour, 171 : khids, 171: point
of attachment, 172 : motions,
173: muscles of lanrae, 1 74: of
imago head and organs, 175:: of
trunk, 177: of wings, 179.

, of Arachnida, iv. 187.

Myrtle, attacked by a coccus, i.

193.
Nectar of flowers^ numeroos iiw

sects devoted to its absoirption,

iv. 480.
Nectarine, attacked by insects, i.

200.
Nerves of insects, number of, iv.

14: recurrent, 16.
Nervous system of insects, mixad^

iv. 21, 23 : changes of in their

metamorphosis, 23.
Netf bag, iv. 5'16 : fly or bat*fowl-

ing, 518: French, 516^: Mac-
lean's, 520: Paul's, 517: lan(Kng

or water, 521.
Neuters, ii. 30 ; iv. 165.
Nine-killer, i. 285.

632

ENGLISH INDEX.

Nbchtmal iiuect9» iv. 513.
Noua of insects, how produced,

iL 880: of beetles, &c. S90.

See Hnnmnwf,
Nut weevil o( l 201.
Nymph, i. 65 : cased nymph, 67.
OuM .produced by insects, iv. 1 S3.
OUve, insects that attack, L 201.
Orange, attackedby a coccus, Ll9S.
Orchard and Fruitery, insect ene-
mies of, i. 193.
Orders of insects, denominations

of, i. 66f note : defiiutions of, iv.

36 7 : which should precede, 4 1 6:
. osculant, 369.
Orismdogy (term), iii. 257 ; iv.

529, note.
Ovo43iwparous insects, iv. 163.
Palpi, of what sense organs,iv. 248.
Paradies of insects : — vegetable, iv,

207 : Insect ; hymenopterous,

i. 264^ iv. 209: strepsipterous,

i. 267; iv. 208: dipterous, i.

267; iv. 224: apterous, Und:

Worms, 229.
Pax'iuaxyVf, 176.
Peaches, insects that attack, i. 200.
fears, insects th^t attack, i. 197.
Peck (Professor), his description of

the ovipositor of saw-jfiies,iv. 1 54.
Penny (Dr. Thomas), iv. 429.
Pentamerous insects, iii. 36S.
Perspiration of insects, iv. 145.
Phosphorus, iv. 107.
Phthmasis, or lousy disease, i. 84;

iv. 224.
PhthirophagiyU 107.
Pigeons, insects that infest, i. 162.
Pine-apple, insects that attack, i.

201.
Pissoceros, what? ii. 147.
PUmt'Uce, extraordinary fecundity

of, L 174; iv. 164: numbers of,

11. 8.
Plant4ouse'^o£ the apple, i, 32,
- 198:: of the bean or Collier,
175 : of the beech, 208 : of the
fir, 208, 454 : of the hop, 265 :
of the larch, 208 : of roots, ii.
90: of the rose, i. 192.

Plants, entrap flies, L 289 : fecun-
dated bpr insects, 293 : some
yield pouonous honey, ii. 180.

Pliny, iv. 425.

Plums, insects that attack, i. 197.

Pockets (wax), ii. 177.

Poisons, insect, iv. 137.

Polymerous insects, iiL 686.

Potatoes, insects that attack, L
185.

Poultry, insects that attack, i. 162.

Praying'4nsects or Mantes^ fero*
city of, i. 275.

Propolis, VfhBit? iL 186.

Proportion (relative), of insects ac-
cording to the kind of their
food, iv. 480.

Pubescence of insects, uses of, iii.
399.

Pupee, kmds of, i. ^B ; iiL 228 : I^-
marck's and Latreille's division
of, 243, note : int^ument of,
244: figure of, 246 : parts of, 249:
colour o^ 259 : age of^ 26 1 : sex
of, 270 : motions of, ii. 296 ; iiL
270 : respiration of, iv. 74 : ex-
trication of, iii. 272.

PujPtjparofM insects, iii. 64; iv. 165.

(^.'ueenrbee, it. 141.

Range (geographical) of insects, iv.
486.

Raspberry, insects that attack, i.

. 194.

Ratel (honey), i. 278.

Ray{io\m\ system of insects, iv.

. 433.

Reaumur, eulogium of, iv. 443.

Respiration of insects^ how carried
on, iv. 36 : external signs of, TS.

Rooks, serviceable by destroying
insects, i. 30.

Rye attacked by insects, i. 172.

Salmon, louse of, i. 165.

Sapropkagous insects* iv. 47^. .

Sauhflies, how they\deposit their
eggs, i. 353: their ovipositor,
. 353; iv. 154 : vast flights of,
ii. 10 : simulate dead), iL 235 :
eggs of, grow, iii. 91 : why. hy-
menopterous, iv. 373, 407 : their

ENGLISH INDEX.

633

tcentoi^ns, Si. 245, 1^51: slimy I
larvs of, 228.
Sauhfly^ barley, i. 172: cherry,
195: goosebeny, 195: rose,
192, S53: turnip, 166; ii. 10.

SchwenckfeMf Dr., first faunist,
iv. 400.

Scolechiasit i. 99 ; iv. 224. -

Scorphtiytem&c attitude of, i. 1 24 :
ferocity of, 276 : gills of, iv. 60 :
liver of, 117.

, water, eggs of, iii. 94.

Scnpture (Holy), account of in-
sects, iv. 420.

Sculpture of insect int^ument, iii.
397.

Seasont of insects, iv. 508.

Secretions of insects : — 8ilk,iv. 1 30 :
saliva, isi: varnish. 133: jelly,
133: oils, 133: milk, 134: ho-
ney, 134: wax, 135: poisons
and acids, 137: odorous fluids
and vapours, 140: phosphorus,
143 : fat, 144.

Semicowplete pupa, i. 67.

Semes of insects, whether seven,
iv. 233: they have the ordi-
nary, 237 I internal sense, 234 ,*
sight, 2S4: hearing, 235: an-
tennee, whether organs of, 240 :
touch, 247 : smell, 249 : taste,
255.

Sensorium, common, where re-
sident, iv. 1 9.

Seven, a sacred • number, xiL 15,
note; iv. 283: quinary groups
resolvable into, 399.

Sheep, insects that infest, i. 156.

Shellfish, insects that infest, i. 1 65.

JShowers (bloody)^ produced by in-
sects, i. 34.

Shrike, See Butcher-iird,

Silk, i. 329.

Silk'-wortHS, kinds of, i. 332 : dis-
eases of, IV. 205 : not attacked
by ichneumons, 221: bow to
forward their exclusion, iii. 101 .

Skin of insects, iii. 401.

Skunk, ii. 241.

Steep, of insects, iv. 192.

Soap, manufactured from insects,
f. SIS.

Society, Royal, iv. 436.

, Linnean, iv. 449.

Sotomon, knew insects, L 23 ; ii. 46.

Sow-bug, i. 140.

Sparrows, number of cater[nllar«
they devour, i. 288.

Species, iv. 396: how to inves-
tigate, 549.

Spectre, large egg of, iii. 90.

Sphinx, why so named, ii. 237.

Spider, amphibious, i. 473 : bird,
424; iii. 491: edible, i. S07.
gossamer, ii. 336 : large field or
diadem, i. 405: shepherd, tL
310: small garden^i. 416: trap-
door, 471.

Spiders, hunters, i. 424: swim-
mers, 425: vagrants, 404 : wea-
yers or sedentaries, 404; iv. 31.

, affection for their €gK*, i-
359 : webs, texture of andhow
spun, 408, 421 ; iv. 123: won-
derful apparatus for ginning,
404: floating nest or, 425:
nest under water, 475: web
destroyed by fluid emitted by a
caterpillar, iL 248: saiiine in
the air, 334 : effiscts of weir
venom, i. 131: cruelty, 276:
gills of, iv. 61: Hver of, 118:
disease of, 207.

Spiracles (false), iii. 714.

Spirits-^f'^wine, their use in de-
stroymg insects, iv. 523, 527.

Stamina of flowers adhering to
bees mistaken for fungi, iv. 208.

Stick, entomological, iv. 516.

Stomach of insects, iv. 99 : pecu-
liar of bugs, 1 10.

Strawberry, idietber attacked by
insects, i. 193; ii. 311.

Strength (muscular) of insects, iy.
188.

Strepsiptera (order), denomination
proper, iii. 591, note.

Subclasses, iv. 366.

Subc&mates, iv. 485.

Suborders, iv. 392.

634

ENGLISH INDS^X.

Sugarcane, insect . Mtailants of, \.

182.
Stvamnierdam, system of,iv. 431.
Swine, iosects that iniest, i. 1 58.
System, what ? iv. 356.

- (nervous), of anunals,
t three primary types of> iv. 3:

what analogous to, 20.
"■I of the : development of

insect forms by Dr. Herold,

refutation ofy iii. 52, 192.
System* of insects, alary, iv. 436 :

eclectic, 454: maxillary, 449:

metaraorphoticy 431: qutnary,

465.
^aron^tt/a spider, effects of bite,
•..i..l26.

Tastey organs of in insects, iv. ^55,
Tatranieroiu insects, iii. 684.
Thttler(tphagOttB,{Mect'&y iv. 279.
Tibt, American, i. 105, 145: dog,

161; ii. 223y308.
Timbery insects that attack,.i\. 232.
Times of appearance of insects, iv.

512.
Tobacco, insects 'that attack, iv.

' 184.

Tool for cutting pins, &c. iv. 544.

To^TMdt/^ of insects, iv« 78 : causes
of) ii.> 442: their reviviscence
from, 455. .

Touchy organs of in insects, iv. 247.

Trachea or windrpipe of insects, iv.
61 : analogy between and. the
spiral-vesselsof plants^ iv» 70. .

Tree.<ireepery i. S86.

Trees, injured by insects, i. 205 :

.particularly by a small. Jbeetle,
210.

Trvmetoui insects».iii; 685.

Truvk of insects, reasons assigned
fortlie nomenclatiu'eof, iii. .529.

Turm^y greatly injured by insects,
]. 185; ii. 10.

Vacuum formed by the little cater-
pillar of a moth, L 15, 461.

Vartnshi produced . by insects, iv.
133.

Vessel (dorsal), of insects, e iv.. 83,
90: varicose or ImIc,' 103.

Vincy attacked by insects, i. 202 ;
ii. 2SS ; iv. 500.

Virey, Dr., system of animals, iv.
362 : theory of instinct, 26.

Wasp, bee, ii. 224, 367 : blue-sand,
384 : caterpillar or sand, 367 ;
iv. 132: common, i. 15; ii. 107:
fly, 367: golden, 224, 233 : raa^
son, i. 346, 356, 447: spider,
345; ii. 358, 367.

JVaspSy females, i. 372: love of
their progeny, 371 : nests ofy
505 : numbers of, ii.- 109 : sen-
tinds, 112: destruction of, 113:
kept in hives, how they proceed,
113: walk against gravity, 331 :
bow they act if their prey is
too heavy, 520: fluid effused by,
iv. 132: poison of, 139.

Wax (bees'), i. 324, 465 ; iv. 185.

(coccus), i. 324.

fVeevUy clover, i. 177: common,
171: dock, ii. 280: figwort,
274 J millet, i. 172: nut, 201,
356: palm, -298; ii. 322: rice,
i. 171 } water-hemlock, 280.

Weevilsy ii. 234, 322.

Wheaty numerous insects attack,
i. $€6.

Wheel, animal, ii. 452.

^Ke/2t^^v, encomium of, iv. 434.

Whigs, c^insects, ii. 346; iii. 618.

^oofl^-Zbttf^ (timber), ravages of, i.
285.

Woodf>eekery i. 31, 286.

■Workst Entomological, which use-
ful to the entomologist, iv. 471,
note, 590.

Worniy wire, ravages of, i. 179,
186 : hand or wheale, 9^.
wheat, iv. 231.

Wormsy intestinal, iv. 229, 231.

END OF TUR FOiURTH AND LAST VOLUME.

Books jmblished by the same Authors.

By Mr. KiRBY,

MONOGRAPHIA APUM ANGLIiE:

Or, An Attempt to divide into their natural Genera and Fami-
lies such Species of the Linnean Genus Apis as have been
discovered in England. In two volumes 8vo, with plates.
Price 1/. 1*. •

By Mr. Spence,

In one closely 'printed Volume^ Svo/price 7s, Boards,

TRACTS on POLITICAL ECONOMY, viz.

1. Britain independent of 'Commerce. Seventh Edition.

2. Agriculture the Source of the Wealth of Britain. Third

Edition.

3. The Objections against the Corn Bill refuted. Fifth

Edition.

4. Speech on the East India Trade. With Prefatory Re-

marks on the Causes and Cure of our Present Dis-
tresses, as originating from Neglect of Principles laid
down in these Works.

LONDON:

PRXMTSD BT RICHARD TAYLOR,
IHOI-LAKB.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Vol. I.

PLATE I.

COLEOPTERA.

Fig. 1. Calofioma Sycophanta.

2. Staphylinus cyaneus.

3. Siagonium quadricoroey Nov. Gen. K. magnified.

4. Malthinus.

5. Molorchus.

6. Meloe.

Dermaptera.

• *

7. Forficula gigantea.

PLATE IL

SXRfirSlPTERA.

1 . XenoB Peckii. Linti, Trans,

OrthopterA.

2. Acheta Gryllotalpa.

3. Blatta germanica.

Hemiptera.
4*. Ledraaurita.
5. Cimex rufipes.

PLATE IIL
Lepidoptera.
L Papilio dispar masi?

2. Sesia asiliformis.

3. Bombyx pulchella.

Trichoptera.

4. Phryganea varia?

NSUROPTERA.

5. Libellula cancellata.

6. Raphidia notata, Fab. Mantiss.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Vol. II.

PLATE IV.
Hymenoptera.

Fig. 1. SirexGigas.

2. Evania appendigaster magnified.

3. Noroada Marshamella.

DiPTERA.

4. Pedicia rivosa.

5. Sericomyia Lapponum.

PLATE V.

1. Oxypterum Kirbyanum. Leach, magnified.

Aphanipteba.

2. Pulex irritans magnified.

Aptera.

3. Ricinus Pavonis magnified.

4. Aranea marginata. Donovan,

5. Chelifer cancroides magnified.

6. Scolopendra forficata.

[This leaf has been reprinted for the accommodation of those who
may prefer binding the Plates^ Indexes, and Synoptical IVible, in a
separate volume.]

Vf .

A \ ■/

0 'iJ 4)

""i m

n

4%

§M

mi

1.. I I

^

'"fS^^

m-

•y /,i

•\6.

n

»

n

J'ititti/XJJ^

i

ft

8

9

/y

w

44

15

in

7

i6

41

48

49

20

P/

28

2?

24

25

26

27

28

29

34

^QSSH^'^

32

83

86

.'d^C^'/jmrn^^JfLi-Jf'

■TT^r

s

4

O

TfateA21

r

('

^8

\. ...

yfS\

?e

26 } .

5(?

^

H

32

SS

35

86

1

.57

^«?

42

4S

46

n

■*■ •

'-A'

lia/Bjzvn.

6

^6

u

o

A-

/

>.

a

3

5y

.>5

.^i'

.^9

ik

•i

5^

<;♦

6*

40

e*

42 43

44

46

49

1

54

64

'^

55

56

or f*

58

.59

l\

\

e/

55' ^-^

n f '^^*

'-'//J^n/.mj Ju n j'f/i 'T

n

M

%<

"ff^

?^ fi>

m

10

'^

• 1 '*)

n

^,

Jk'

=;;=

i^